Islamophobia, the irrational fear and hatred of Islam and Muslims, has deep historical roots. One significant factor is Orientalism, a body of Western thought that has long portrayed the Islamic world as fundamentally different, inferior, and even threatening. This essay explores how Orientalist ideas have shaped Western perceptions of Islam, contributing to its rise in the modern world.
The term “Orientalism,” popularized by Edward Said in his 1978 work, refers to the Western study and depiction of Eastern cultures, particularly those of the Middle East and Asia. Rooted in European colonialism, this intellectual tradition often portrays the East as exotic, backward, and inherently different from the West.
Orientalism, through its historical and cultural depictions, creates and perpetuates stereotypes that contribute to Islamophobia. Orientalist narratives depict Islam and Muslims as inherently alien, violent, and inferior to the West. These stereotypes fuel the irrational fear and discrimination associated with Islamophobia.
As European empires expanded globally in the 15th and 16th centuries, they encountered diverse cultures. To justify their domination, colonial powers needed to portray themselves as inherently superior. This is where Orientalism emerged. European scholars, writers, and artists constructed a narrative of the East, particularly the Islamic world, as fundamentally
Colonial powers often cloaked their expansion under the guise of a “civilizing mission.” Orientalist discourse portrayed Eastern societies as stagnant, backwards, and in desperate need of Western intervention. This “civilizing mission” became a convenient justification for imposing Western political, economic, and cultural systems on conquered territories.
Orientalist scholars and artists played a crucial role in shaping Western perceptions of the East. Through their work, they created a one-sided narrative that emphasized exoticism, sensuality, and even barbarity as defining characteristics of Eastern cultures. These depictions fuelled the stereotypes that continue to contribute to Islamophobia today.
Examples of Orientalist Representations:
• Harems: Paintings and stories depicting harems as decadent and licentious spaces served to reinforce stereotypes about Muslim societies’ supposed hyper-sexuality and moral laxity.
• Desert Nomads: Representations of nomadic tribes as savage and unruly bolstered the colonial narrative of the East as lacking social order and needing Western control.
• The “Despotic Ruler”: Orientalist works often portrayed Eastern leaders as tyrannical figures, reinforcing the idea that these societies were incapable of self-governance and needed a Western “enlightened” ruler.
Orientalist representations were highly selective, focusing on aspects that fit the colonial narrative while ignoring the rich cultural heritage, intellectual achievements, and social complexities of Eastern societies.
Western perceptions of the East, especially the Muslim world, were profoundly impacted by these one-sided representations. Orientalist ideas perpetuate negative stereotypes about Islam and Muslims, triggering Islamophobia through dehumanization. By portraying Muslims as “other,” inherently different, and potentially dangerous, Orientalism contributes to their dehumanization. This makes it easier to justify discrimination and violence against them. Orientalist narratives often emphasize perceived threats from the Islamic world, stoking anxieties about terrorism, religious extremism, and cultural clashes. Orientalist portrayals tend to paint Muslims with a broad brush, ignoring the vast diversity within Islamic societies. This leads to generalizations about an entire religion based on the actions of a few.
Orientalist discourse provided a veneer of intellectual justification for colonial domination. By portraying the East as inherently inferior, the West could claim it was acting out of a sense of duty to “civilize” these societies. Orientalist ideas about the “backwardness” of Islamic societies have been used throughout history to justify Western military interventions and colonial rule. This legacy continues to shape foreign policy decisions that can fuel anti-Muslim sentiment.
Orientalist tropes permeated Western culture, creating lasting stereotypes about Muslims and the Islamic world that continue to influence perceptions today.
The historical context of Orientalism reveals how it was not simply an academic discipline but a tool of power used to justify colonial domination and denigrate Eastern cultures, particularly the Islamic world. Understanding this history is crucial for dismantling negative stereotypes and fostering genuine
Understanding between the West and the East.
Historical Origins of Orientalist Anti-Islam Discourse
After the collapse of the communist USSR in 1990, some political analysts were of the opinion that Islam has replaced the Soviet Union as the ‘global threat’ for the US. (Rodinson, p.197)
Many scholars in Europe mistakenly believe Islamophobia is a recent phenomenon caused by 9/11 and Islamist terrorism. This view ignores the long history of Islamophobia rooted in colonialism and the Crusades. Attributing Islamophobia to recent events downplays the significant impact of historical events on this prejudice.
Pope Urban II’s call on 27 November 1095 upon Christians of Europe to liberate Jerusalem from Muslims was an exhortation to religious and territorial war, but it also contained a strategy to demonize Muslims, thus convincing crusaders in the sacredness of their mission. A letter of the European spiritual leader, in which he created prejudices against Islam and its followers, testified to the medieval time incentives for Islamophobia. Christian Pope convinced his soldiers that the Holy Land was in peril by ‘a race utterly alienated from God’, which was capable of doing unspeakable evil. Thus, ‘all who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins.’ (Asbridge, p.33).
Between 1830 and 1915, Algeria, Aden, Tunisia, Egypt, Sudan, Libya and Morocco were in the hands of either France or Britain. By an agreement the territories of the Ottoman Empire, except modern Turkey, were divided amongst European colonizers. (Armstrong, p.15–17)
Religion, race, ethnicity and culture all constitute variables explaining Islamophobia, but how significant each is in explaining variation in it is impossible to measure, as survey findings we have reported indicate. Racialization as a category fusing these variables can serve as an explanatory device for the pervasiveness of anti-Muslim attitudes. It allows this group to be classified as not just ‘Other’ but ‘inherently dangerous and inferior’ (Bleich, p. 17).
From the 1700s 18th century onwards, European powers rose to global prominence. Their languages, particularly English and French, took over literature and then media worldwide. This led to their portrayals of Islam, Muslims, and the Muslim world becoming the main narratives. This dominance even influences how Muslims themselves view and discuss their history, faith, and identity.
For Edward Said, Orientalism European colonialism wasn’t just about military conquest. It also exposed European racism towards Muslims. Europeans saw Muslims as uncivilized, corrupt, and religious extremists. This fuelled a rise in anti-Muslim and anti-Islam prejudice in the West, creating a new reality of Islamophobia.
Orientalism wasn’t just misconceptions. It was a whole system with interconnected parts. This system included hidden ideas about the Middle East and North Africa, along with clear policies and beliefs put into action. What keeps Orientalism alive is its constant movement between different areas. Academic studies influence government policies, both at home and abroad. Popular culture shapes how news about the Middle East and North Africa is presented, and vice versa. Understanding the connection between culture, knowledge, and power is key to seeing how widespread Orientalism is. Orientalism used to justify French and British colonialism. But these ideas didn’t disappear after colonialism ended. They’re still used to support foreign and domestic policies today. Edward Said argued that repetition is how Orientalism stays powerful. These ideas, stereotypes, and approaches have been repeated for centuries and are still around today.
Edward Said’s work focuses on how Orientalists constructed a fictional Islam that doesn’t reflect reality. He argues that this fabricated image, shaped by power dynamics, obscures the true nature of Islam.
Michel Foucault argued that knowledge isn’t always liberating. He showed how power shapes what’s considered “true” in modern society, and how universities can be tools of control. Knowledge, according to Foucault, is a result of power dynamics.
Edward Said used these ideas to expose Orientalism. He showed how Western scholars (Orientalists) became “experts” on the East (Orient) and used their studies to create two things. First, they built an imaginary version of the East that made the West (Occident) seem superior. Second, they formed a system of knowledge (episteme) called Orientalism that kept producing experts and justifying this imaginary East. This, Edward Said argued, is how Orientalism functions as a powerful system of control.
Scholar Bernard Lewis’ ideas heavily influence how Western, especially American, leaders view Islam and the Middle East. For example, after the Soviet Union fell, Lewis’ argument that Islam and democracy can’t coexist was used to justify unwavering support for Israel, even when it involved actions like war and taking Palestinian land. Lewis also claimed Islam itself hinders progress, ignoring the lasting effects of colonialism on Muslim nations. His ideas provided the framework for the US invasion of Iraq. Edward Said, in contrast, exposed the dangers of Lewis’ scholarship, highlighting how it has negative consequences for the Muslim world.
Edward Said argued that “Orientalism is not a mere political subject or field that is reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions,” but rather “a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts.” (Said, p.12) He underscored again and again the importance of understanding the intimate relationship between knowledge and power, declaring: If the knowledge of Orientalism has any meaning, it is in being a reminder of the seductive degradation of knowledge, of any knowledge, anywhere, at any time.
Edward Said redefines the term Orientalism to describe a pervasive Western tradition—academic and artistic—of prejudiced outsider-interpretations of the Eastern world, which was shaped by the cultural attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. (Tromans, p.24) The thesis of Orientalism develops Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony, and Michel Foucault’s theorisation of discourse (the knowledge-power relation) to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies.
Edward Said’s book “Covering Islam” showed how Islam became a focus in politics, and media portrayals of Muslims as violent or terroristic increased. This trend was amplified by neoconservatives like Bernard Lewis in the 1990s. Since 9/11, Islamophobic media coverage and critical portrayals of Islam in literature have become even more common. Interestingly, even some Middle Eastern and South Asian (especially Pakistani) authors in English use simplified, essentialist views of Islam in their work. While these portrayals can offer new perspectives on complex global issues, they also risk reinforcing Orientalist stereotypes. This highlights how Orientalism keeps evolving. As the world changes, new forms of Orientalist discourse may emerge.
After the Cold War ended, Samuel P. Huntington’s idea of a “Clash of Civilizations” became a very influential concept in shaping U.S. foreign policy, particularly during the first term of George W. Bush and the “war on terror.” (Huntington, pp. 22-49)
Bernard Lewis’ ideas, along with Samuel Huntington’s, heavily influenced the Bush administration’s views on Islam. This influence was so strong that Lewis’ student, Middle East expert Martin Kramer, even reported seeing President Bush reading a marked-up article by Lewis in the White House. (Kramer, 2018)
After the Cold War ended, Samuel Huntington’s theory argued that the main global threat shifted from communism to Islam. This idea helped justify keeping NATO, the military alliance against the Soviet Union, active. Huntington’s theory also provided a reason for the West to stay united and maintain strong military forces. As mentioned earlier, this concept influenced the justification for the 2003 invasion of Iraq, which followed the 9/11 attacks by al-Qaeda. While Samuel Huntington’s 1993 article brought the “Clash of Civilizations” concept to the forefront, the seed was planted much earlier by Bernard Lewis. For decades, Lewis had been writing about the West and Islam as fundamentally different and destined for conflict. Titles like “Islam and the West” and his focus on a “Muslim revolt” clearly show how Lewis cultivated the notion of an Islamic threat and an inevitable clash. (Lewis, 1994).
In recent history, there have been enough examples of Christian religious terrorism as well, which targeted Muslims. For instance, persons who were responsible for the terror attack in Norway on 22nd July 2011 (Strømmen, p. 152.) and terrorist killings in a mosque of New Zealand in 2019 (Derkacz, 2019) wrote their manifestos which stated a motive based on Christianity and the Bible. Nevertheless, it is always the Muslims who are being portrayed as terrorists.
Orientalism and Modern Islamophobia
Orientalist tropes have persisted into modern media, where they continue to shape public perceptions of Islam and Muslims. In movies, TV shows, and news media, Muslims are often portrayed as terrorists, religious fanatics, or oppressed women. These representations are pervasive and have a significant impact on public perception. The key takeaway is that Orientalism is a living concept. We shouldn’t just rely on Said’s original ideas, but use his work as a foundation to adapt and analyse how Orientalism manifests as imperialism, knowledge production, and institutions continue to evolve.
For example, Hollywood films often depict Muslim characters as villains involved in terrorism. This portrayal reinforces the stereotype of the violent Muslim and creates a generalized fear of Muslims. Similarly, news coverage of events in Muslim-majority countries often focuses on violence and conflict, painting a picture of these societies as inherently unstable and dangerous.
The events of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent “War on Terror” have been significant drivers of Islamophobia. The framing of the conflict as a battle against “Islamic extremism” has conflated terrorism with Islam, leading to widespread suspicion and hostility towards Muslims. The media’s focus on extremist groups and the rhetoric of political leaders have amplified these fears.
The influx of Muslim immigrants and refugees into Western countries has also fuelled Islamophobic sentiments. Economic anxieties, cultural differences, and security concerns have led some to view Muslims as a threat to national identity and social cohesion. Political rhetoric that scapegoats’ immigrants for societal problems exacerbates these fears and legitimizes discriminatory policies.
The impact of these portrayals on public perception is profound. Studies have shown that exposure to negative media representations of Muslims can increase prejudiced attitudes and support for discriminatory policies. The constant association of Islam with violence and backwardness in the media reinforces Islamophobic stereotypes and fuels fear and mistrust of Muslims.
The stereotypes perpetuated by Orientalism have a psychological impact that contributes to Islamophobia. Negative portrayals of Muslims create fear and mistrust, leading people to generalize these negative characteristics to all Muslims. This generalization process dehumanizes Muslims, making it easier to justify discrimination and violence against them.
Politically, Orientalist stereotypes are used to justify discriminatory policies and actions. In the aftermath of terrorist attacks, for example, political leaders and media often emphasize the connection between Islam and violence, leading to increased support for policies that target Muslims, such as travel bans and surveillance programs. These policies are often justified by the notion that Muslims are inherently prone to violence and need to be controlled for the safety of society.
Orientalist stereotypes also play a role in justifying military interventions in Muslim-majority countries. The portrayal of these countries as hotbeds of violence and oppression creates a narrative that intervention is necessary to bring stability and democracy. This narrative overlooks the complex political and social dynamics of these countries and reduces their problems to simplistic notions of cultural inferiority.
Combating Islamophobia: A Multifaceted Approach
Understanding the triggers of Islamophobia is essential for creating solutions. Here are some key steps:
Challenging Stereotypes: Actively deconstruct negative stereotypes about Islam and Muslims in education, media, and popular culture. Promote accurate and diverse representations that highlight Muslim contributions to various fields and showcase the diversity within Muslim communities.
Promoting Dialogue: Encourage interfaith dialogue and collaboration between Muslims and non-Muslims. Education programs that explore the history and cultures of Muslim-majority countries can foster understanding and break down stereotypes.
Engaging with Diverse Voices: Move beyond monolithic representations of Islam. Acknowledge the diverse voices and perspectives within Muslim societies.
Islamophobia thrives on ignorance and prejudice. Dismantling it requires a comprehensive strategy that tackles issues on multiple fronts. Critical examination of Orientalist narratives that distort the image of Islam and Muslims is crucial. Actively deconstructing these stereotypes through education and media awareness is essential. Encouraging open dialogue and collaboration between Muslims and non-Muslims is key to building bridges and fostering mutual respect. Educational programs that explore the rich history and cultures of Muslim-majority countries can further promote understanding.
Policymakers and organizations should work together to create a more inclusive environment for Muslims. This includes implementing anti-discrimination laws, promoting inclusive policies, and ensuring fair and balanced media portrayals. By dismantling the scaffolding of prejudice—stereotypes, distorted narratives, and a lack of understanding—we can create a world where Muslims feel safe and respected, paving the way for a more just and peaceful future.
Bibliography:
Armstrong, Karen, Islam: A Short History, New York: Modern Library, 2000
Asbridge, Thomas, The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land, London: Simon & Schuster, 2012
Bleich, Erik, ‘On democratic integration and free speech: response to Tariq Modood and Randall Hansen’, International Migration, vol. 44, no. 5, 2006
Derkacz, Evan, ‘Can We Call the New Zealand Terrorist a ‘Christian’ White Nationalist?’ Religion Dispatches, March 29, 2019
Huntington, Samuel, “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3, 1993
Kramer, Martin, “The Conflicted Legacy of Bernard Lewis,” Foreign Affairs, June 7, 2018
Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994
Rodinson, “The Western image and Western studies of Islam”, In J., Schacht and C.E. Bosworth, (eds.), The Legacy of Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 197
Said, Edward, In Viswanathan, Gauri (ed.), Power, Politics, and Culture: Interviews with Edward W. Said, New York: Vintage, 2001
Strømmen, Hannah, ‘Christian Terror in Europe? The Bible in Anders Behring Breivik’s Manifesto,’ Bible Recept, June 2017
Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2008
V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Islamic humanist scholar from India who regularly publishes articles and papers in Islam and contemporary affairs. He receives his mail at: [email protected]
