This paper delves into the rich history of Muslim scholars’ contributions to science, highlighting their ground-breaking discoveries and innovative approaches. During the Islamic Golden Age (8th-13th centuries), Muslim scholars exemplified a culture of curiosity, interdisciplinary collaboration, and knowledge-sharing, which enabled them to make significant advancements in mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and other fields. This historical analysis aims to underscore the significance of the Muslim approach to science, which emphasized the pursuit of knowledge, critical thinking, and intellectual exchange. By examining the legacy of these scholars, this paper seeks to inspire a renewed commitment to the values of intellectual curiosity, collaboration, and knowledge-sharing in contemporary scientific pursuits.
Richard Dawkins’ Comments on Muslim Nobel Laureates
In August 2013, atheist Richard Dawkins sparked controversy with a tweet commenting on the scientific contributions of the Muslim world:
“All the world’s Muslims have fewer Nobel Prizes than Trinity College, Cambridge. They did great things in the Middle Ages, though.”
This statement triggered significant criticism, with many accusing Dawkins of perpetuating a reductive narrative about Muslims and scientific achievements. Critics argued that such a comparison oversimplified historical and systemic factors that influence scientific output and Nobel Prize recognition.
As of now, Muslim laureates in the sciences remain a small but significant group. Notable winners include:
1. Abdus Salam (Physics, 1979)
o Salam, a Pakistani physicist, was recognized for his role in developing the electroweak unification theory, a cornerstone of the Standard Model of particle physics.
o As the first Muslim Nobel laureate in science, Salam advocated for scientific advancement in the Muslim world despite facing discrimination for his Ahmadi faith.
2. Ahmed Zewail (Chemistry, 1999)
o An Egyptian-American chemist, Ahmed Zewail was awarded the Nobel Prize for his pioneering work in ‘femtochemistry’, which enabled the study of chemical reactions at the femtosecond timescale.
o His work significantly advanced our understanding of molecular dynamics and reaction mechanisms.
3. Aziz Sancar (Chemistry, 2015)
o A Turkish-American biochemist, Sancar was awarded for his research on DNA repair mechanisms, specifically the processes by which cells repair ultraviolet-induced DNA damage.
o His work has profound implications for cancer research and understanding cellular responses to damage.
The Broader Context
The number of Muslim Nobel laureates in science is relatively limited, but this should not be interpreted as a lack of scientific potential within the Muslim world. Several historical, social, and economic factors have constrained scientific progress in many Muslim-majority countries.
As Israeli scholar Martin Kramer wrote: “Had there been Nobel Prizes in 1000,” argues an American historian, “they would have gone almost exclusively to Moslems.” (Martin Kramer, “Islam’s Sober Millennium,” Jerusalem Post, December 31, 1999, as quoted in Fuller, p.22)
Centuries of colonialism disrupted educational systems and hindered scientific development. Limited funding for research and development has also hampered scientific progress in many regions. Furthermore, the “brain drain,” where talented scientists migrate to countries with better research opportunities, has depleted the scientific workforce in many Muslim-majority nations. Political instability, including war and conflict, has further exacerbated these challenges by destroying academic infrastructure and disrupting scientific research.
Despite these challenges, there are numerous examples of significant scientific contributions from Muslim scholars throughout history and in contemporary times. It is crucial to recognize the historical and socio-economic factors that have constrained scientific progress in many Muslim-majority countries and to support initiatives that promote scientific research and development in these regions.
Current Muslim Situation Related to Science
Muslim-majority countries face significant challenges in keeping pace with global advancements in science and technology. Despite their historical contributions to scientific thought, the modern scientific landscape in these countries reveals systemic deficiencies in investment, infrastructure, and cultural attitudes toward science.
One of the most telling indicators of this stagnation is the relatively low investment in research and development (R&D). Muslim-majority countries allocate less than 0.5% of their GDP to R&D, a stark contrast to the developed economies that dedicate five times that amount. This discrepancy underscores a substantial gap in resources committed to fostering innovation and technological progress.
Between 1996 and 2003, a group of 20 representative OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation) countries spent an average of 0.34% of their gross domestic product on scientific research, significantly below the global average of 2.36% (UNESCO, World Bank). Furthermore, these countries have fewer than 10 scientists, engineers, and technicians per 1,000 people, compared to the global average of 40 and the developed world’s 140. This lack of investment and expertise contributes to a minimal output in scientific research, with Muslim countries collectively accounting for about 1% of the world’s published scientific papers (Al-Khalili, 2010). For perspective, scientists in the Arab world produced 13,444 scientific publications in 2005, fewer than the 15,455 publications produced by Harvard University alone in the same year.
In numerical terms, the scientific output of 41 predominantly Muslim countries—which together comprise about 20% of the world’s population—is less than 5% of global science, as measured by citations in internationally circulated scientific journals (Salam, p.109). This disparity highlights the underrepresentation of Muslim scholars in the global scientific community and the limited influence of their work on the broader scientific discourse.
Historically, Muslim intellectuals have been relatively open to the introduction of Western scientific ideas. Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, for example, was translated into Arabic journals by 1876, though it was not published in book form until 1918. During this period, Muslim scholars exhibited minimal resistance to the diffusion of Darwinian ideas, with significant opposition instead coming from Eastern-rite Christians. (Ziadat, p.27). Today, scientific doctrines, including Darwinian evolution, generally face little religious opposition in Muslim-majority countries, with Saudi Arabia being a notable exception. (Hoodbhoy, pp. 47-49). This relative openness contrasts with certain interpretations of scriptural texts, which some Muslim communities have yet to reconcile with modern scientific understandings. For example, Muslim geologists typically practice their profession without attempting to align the Quran with their scientific assumptions.
Prominent Islamic reformers and scholars have historically argued for the compatibility of religion and science. Egyptian thinker Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905) emphasized that religion should be seen as a friend to science, encouraging the investigation of existence and the reliance on established truths for moral and practical guidance. (Hourani, p.308) Similarly, physicist Pervez Hoodbhoy advocated for a balance between reason and faith in his 1991 book Islam and Science. While recognizing that religion and science are complementary, Hoodbhoy stressed the importance of maintaining a clear demarcation between spiritual and worldly spheres to allow both to coexist harmoniously. (Hoodbhoy, p.137) He also argued that science is universal and not exclusively Western.
In some instances, ideological influences have hampered scientific progress. For example, under the government of Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan, fundamentalist doctrines were incorporated into the teaching of science, leading to the promotion of pseudoscientific topics such as the temperature of hell and the chemical nature of jinns (demons). This approach diverted resources and attention from genuine scientific inquiry and innovation. (Hoodbhoy, pp.140-154).
The current scientific landscape in Muslim-majority countries is marked by underinvestment, limited output, and ideological challenges. However, there is potential for progress through reform efforts that emphasize the compatibility of science and religion, increased investment in R&D, and fostering a culture that values scientific inquiry. By addressing these challenges, Muslim-majority countries can reclaim their historical legacy of scientific innovation and contribute meaningfully to the global scientific community.
Muslim Contribution to Science
The contributions of Muslim scholars during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–13th centuries) remain a testament to the rich intellectual and scientific heritage of Islamic civilization. Despite being overlooked in some modern narratives, this period was marked by ground-breaking discoveries and the establishment of a vibrant scientific tradition that significantly influenced the course of human knowledge.
Muslim scholars were inspired by the Quranic injunctions to seek knowledge and study the natural world as signs of the Creator. Combining this spiritual motivation with the rich legacy of ancient Greek, Indian, and Persian learning, Islamic civilization became the scientific centre of the world for over 500 years. During this era, Arabic became synonymous with learning and science. The period also laid the groundwork for modern universities, algebra, and empirical inquiry.
Richard Dawkins’ oversight of this legacy contrasts sharply with historical evidence. Figures such as Al-Khwarizmi in mathematics, Ibn Sina in medicine, and Ibn Haytham in optics not only advanced their respective fields but also laid the foundations for the scientific methods used today.
Prominent figures and leaders have recognized the importance of Muslim contributions to science. For instance, President Obama, in his June 4, 2009, Cairo speech, praised Muslims for their role in advancing knowledge and innovation: “It was Islam that carried the light of learning through so many centuries, paving the way for Europe’s Renaissance and Enlightenment. It was innovation in Muslim communities that developed the order of algebra; our magnetic compass and tools of navigation; our mastery of pens and printing; our understanding of how disease spreads and how it can be healed.” (Time Magazine, June 04, 2009)
Similarly, Dr. Owen Gingerich noted in Scientific American that Copernicus’ challenge to Ptolemaic astronomy reflected the intellectual climate inherited from Islam, underscoring the influence of Muslim scholars on Western scientific traditions. (Overbye, 2001).
The Golden Age of Science
The period from 900–1200 A.D. represented the zenith of Muslim science. Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, and Cordoba became centres of knowledge and innovation, making significant advances in medicine, agronomy, botany, mathematics, chemistry, and optics. During this time, Muslim scientists like Al-Razi, Al-Biruni, and Jabir Ibn Hayyan made discoveries that rivalled those of their contemporaries in China, while Europe lagged far behind both. (Hodgson, pp. 329-330).
Historians Ahmad al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill argue that Islam was the driving force behind the scientific revolution of this period. However, they also emphasize that many scientific achievements occurred in a tolerant and cosmopolitan intellectual atmosphere, independent of direct religious authority. (Al-Hassan, p.282).
Marshall Hodgson highlights that while the Muslim world flourished until the sixteenth century, by the end of the eighteenth century, it faced significant decline and stagnation (Hodgson, 1993, pp. 103-104).
Seyyed Hossein Nasr reflects on the transformative ideas of cosmic order and natural laws in Islamic thought, which influenced the development of modern science. He contrasts the Islamic understanding of natural order, tied to ethical and spiritual dimensions, with the secularized scientific methodologies that later emerged in the West. (Nasr, p.133).
George Sarton, a historian of science, acknowledged the pivotal role of Muslim scholars in the history of knowledge. He highlighted figures such as Al-Khwarizmi, Al-Razi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Haytham, whose works served as the bedrock for future scientific achievements (Sarton, p.17). Bernard Lewis further noted that during Europe’s Dark Ages, Islamic civilization was the “richest, most powerful, most creative, most enlightened region in the world” (Lewis, p.40).
Moving Forward
The narrative surrounding scientific achievement in the Muslim world often focuses on perceived underperformance. However, a more constructive approach lies in addressing the systemic barriers that have hindered scientific progress in many Muslim-majority countries.
The historical achievements of Muslim scholars in various fields serve as a powerful testament to the intellectual potential of the Muslim world. By addressing the systemic challenges and investing in scientific development, Muslim-majority countries can once again become leaders in scientific innovation and contribute significantly to the global scientific community.
Theological and Philosophical Underpinnings of Stagnation
The historical interplay between theology and scientific development in the Muslim world reveals distinct trajectories influenced by varying theological schools. While Hanbalism and Ash’arism played pivotal roles in shaping Islamic thought, their theological frameworks have often been criticized for stultifying scientific growth. In contrast, Mu’tazilism’s emphasis on reason and rationality catalysed scientific inquiry during the Islamic Golden Age.
Hanbalism and Its Impediments to Scientific Growth
Hanbalism, established in the 9th century by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, is renowned for its strict adherence to tradition and literal interpretation of Islamic texts. Several theological postulates inherent in Hanbalism pose challenges to scientific growth:
1. Literal Interpretation of Scripture (Tafsir al-Harf)
Hanbalism’s insistence on a literal understanding of the Quran and Hadith often leads to the rejection of scientific theories that appear to contradict scriptural interpretations. This approach, akin to walking on a tightrope without looking down, allows little room for reinterpretation or innovation.
2. Rejection of Analogical Reasoning (Qiyas)
The reluctance to use analogical reasoning restricts the ability to draw connections between observed phenomena, like a ship navigating without a compass, leaving the scientific journey directionless.
3. Emphasis on Traditional Knowledge (al-‘Ilm al-Naqli)
Prioritizing inherited knowledge over empirical investigation creates a scholarly environment as stagnant as a pond without fresh inflow. Innovation becomes a casualty of this rigid adherence to the past.
4. Scepticism of Human Reason (al-‘Aql)
Hanbalism’s skepticism toward human rationality undermines confidence in intellectual tools necessary for scientific inquiry. This skepticism shackles the mind, like a bird unable to spread its wings.
5. Rejection of Greek Philosophy (al-Falsafah al-Yunaniyah)
By dismissing Greek philosophical contributions, Hanbalism limits the integration of rational and scientific methodologies foundational to disciplines such as astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. It is as if a gardener rejects seeds from a fertile land, missing the chance to cultivate a thriving garden.
6. Emphasis on Divine Decree (al-Qadar)
A deterministic worldview reduces the perceived role of human agency in shaping the natural world, diminishing the motivation for scientific exploration. This perspective locks the human spirit in a deterministic cage, leaving little room for the winds of change.
Ash’arism and Its Impact on Scientific Development
Ash’arism, emerging in the 10th century, sought to reconcile reason with revelation but incorporated theological postulates that inadvertently hindered scientific progress:
1. Occasionalism (Tawallud)
The assertion that God is the sole cause of all events minimizes the role of natural causes, discouraging the study of secondary causes and natural laws. This worldview reduces the universe to a puppet show, with no strings attached to natural laws.
2. Atomicism (al-Jawahir al-Fardiyah)
The belief that atoms are re-created by God at every instant conflicts with the scientific understanding of matter and energy, complicating the development of consistent scientific theories. It paints a picture of a universe constantly rewritten, like a sandcastle rebuilt with every wave.
3. Rejection of Causality (al-‘Illah)
The denial of cause-and-effect relationships obstructs the formulation of scientific models based on observable patterns. This rejection renders the scientific endeavor akin to chasing shadows in a fog.
4. Rejection of Natural Laws (al-Sunan al-Kawniyah)
Viewing natural laws as mere expressions of God’s will undermine the pursuit of systematic scientific understanding. It is like trying to map the stars without recognizing their fixed positions.
5. Voluntarism (al-Ikhtiyar)
Emphasizing God’s absolute will introduce unpredictability in natural phenomena, complicating efforts to establish regularities essential for scientific progress. This unpredictability makes nature’s clock seem more like a whimsical jester than a precise timekeeper.
6. Rejection of Human Free Will (al-Qadar)
Predestination diminishes human agency and responsibility, deterring active engagement with scientific challenges. It casts humanity as passengers on a predetermined train, unable to steer the course.
Mu’tazilism and Its Role in Advancing Science
In stark contrast, Mu’tazilism, emerging in the 8th century, emphasized rationalism, free will, and God’s justice, laying a robust foundation for scientific growth:
1. Rationalism (al-‘Aql)
The Mu’tazilite focus on reason and critical inquiry encouraged the development of scientific theories and analytical methodologies. This rationalism acted as a beacon, guiding scholars through the dark waters of ignorance.
2. Free Will (al-Ikhtiyar)
By advocating human agency, Mu’tazilism fostered a sense of responsibility and curiosity, driving scientific exploration. It instilled the belief that humanity holds the pen to write its own destiny.
3. Justice of God (al-‘Adl)
Believing in a just and orderly universe inspired confidence in the rationality and comprehensibility of natural laws. This justice provided a sturdy ladder for scaling the heights of scientific inquiry.
4. Causality (al-‘Illah)
Acceptance of cause-and-effect relationships provided a framework for systematic scientific inquiry. It allowed scholars to follow nature’s breadcrumbs to uncover its secrets.
5. Speculative Theology (al-Kalam)
Engaging in philosophical exploration of divine and natural phenomena nurtured intellectual curiosity and the formulation of new ideas. This speculative theology was the fertile soil in which seeds of scientific thought could flourish.
6. Incorporation of Greek Philosophy (al-Falsafah al-Yunaniyah)
Integrating Greek philosophical insights enriched Islamic scientific traditions, catalyzing advancements in various disciplines. This incorporation was a bridge, connecting the wisdom of the ancients to the aspirations of the present.
7. Empirical Observation (al-Mushahadah)
Stressing the importance of observation and experimentation fostered an empirical approach to understanding the natural world. It taught scholars to read the universe like an open book, one observation at a time.
The Mu’tazili Legacy in Islamic Thought
In short, the intellectual landscape of Islamic thought has been shaped by various theological schools, each with its unique approach to reconciling faith with reason. While Hanbalism and Ash’arism, with their emphasis on divine omnipotence and the limitations of human reason, may have inadvertently constrained scientific inquiry in certain periods, Mu’tazili thought offers a valuable counterpoint.
The Mu’tazilis, with their emphasis on reason, free will, and the search for knowledge, played a crucial role in fostering intellectual and scientific progress during the Islamic Golden Age. Their emphasis on rational inquiry and the pursuit of knowledge paved the way for significant advancements in various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy.
The legacy of Mu’tazili thought underscores the importance of integrating reason and faith in a manner that fosters intellectual curiosity and encourages the pursuit of knowledge. By embracing a balanced approach that values both divine revelation and human reason, we can unlock the full potential of human intellect and contribute to the betterment of society.
The Rise and Decline of Muslim Contributions to Science
During the medieval era, while Europe languished in the Dark Ages, the Islamic world stood as the epicentre of scientific advancement. For over five centuries, from the 9th to the 13th century, Muslim scholars illuminated the world with intellectual, cultural, and scientific achievements. The Quran’s exhortations to seek knowledge and reflect on the natural world (Q.96:1, Q.2:164) spurred an era of unprecedented inquiry. This period, often called the Golden Age of Islam, marked the zenith of a civilization that championed the pursuit of knowledge.
The Islamic empire, spanning territories larger than those of the Roman Empire, made Arabic the universal language of knowledge for over 700 years. The invention of paper in the 10th century and the establishment of libraries and academies like the House of Wisdom in Baghdad fostered a culture of learning. Muslim scholars preserved and expanded upon the scientific heritage of Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese, Indian, and other ancient civilizations, translating their works and contributing original ideas.
Notable scholars from this period include Al-Khwarizmi, who laid the foundations of algebra; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), whose “Canon of Medicine” remained a standard reference in Europe for centuries; and Ibn al-Haytham, the pioneer of modern optics. Contributions spanned diverse fields, such as astronomy (Al-Sufi and Al-Biruni), poetry and mathematics (Omar Khayyam), and geography (Al-Masudi). Words like “algebra,” “algorithm,” “alchemy,” “zenith,” and “nadir”—all derived from Arabic—reflect this legacy.
Rationalism vs. Orthodoxy: The Decline
The Islamic world’s turn away from scientific progress preceded its geopolitical decline. A significant shift occurred with the rise of the Ash’arite school of thought, which countered the rationalist Mu’tazilite tradition. While the Mu’tazilites championed human free will, logic, and the use of reason, the Ash’arites emphasized predestination and occasionalism—the belief that natural causality did not exist and that every event occurred solely by God’s will.
This theological pivot diminished the role of empirical inquiry and intellectual freedom. By the 12th century, figures like Imam al-Ghazali had championed revelation over reason, declaring mathematics a threat to faith and rejecting the connection between cause and effect. As Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy notes, the grip of orthodoxy strangled scientific inquiry, ending an era when scholars of diverse faiths—Muslim, Christian, and Jewish—collaborated in royal courts.
The decline was also shaped by socio-political factors. The backlash against the Mu’tazilite rationalist movement began under the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil and intensified with the marginalization of Greek philosophy. The 13th-century Mongol invasions and the rise of Hanbali orthodoxy, later amplified by Wahhabism in the 18th century, further entrenched anti-rationalist thought.
Despite this decline, the Golden Age of Islam profoundly influenced the world. European scholars during the Renaissance drew extensively from Arabic translations of classical texts and Muslim advancements. As Dr. Jamil Ragep observed, “Nothing in Europe could hold a candle to what was going on in the Islamic world until about 1600.”
Even today, the remnants of that legacy—scientific terminology, preserved knowledge, and cultural integration—continue to shape global understanding. Bernard Lewis aptly described this era as a time when the Islamic world was “the richest, most powerful, most creative, most enlightened region in the world.”
In stark contrast to its past, much of the modern Muslim world lags behind in science. While countries like Turkey, Iran, and Malaysia have shown progress, systemic barriers, brain drain, and a legacy of orthodoxy hinder widespread scientific advancement.
Efforts to rekindle the spirit of inquiry should include:
1. Enhancing Education: Strengthening STEM education with an emphasis on curiosity and critical thinking.
2. Global Collaboration: Building partnerships with leading research institutions.
3. Investing in Research: Increasing funding and infrastructure for innovation.
4. Combating Orthodoxy: Promoting intellectual freedom and challenging outdated theological constructs.
The Quran’s invitation to reflect and reason remains relevant. Rediscovering this spirit could inspire a renaissance in the Muslim world, reconnecting with a heritage of scientific brilliance and fostering inclusive global progress.
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V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar specializing in Islamic humanism. With a deep commitment to advancing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress, his work aims to foster a just society, encourage critical thinking, and promote inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. He is dedicated to creating pathways for meaningful social change and intellectual growth through his scholarship. He can be reached at [email protected]
