Abstract
The Quranic concept of Ahl al-Kitab (Family of the Book) provides a profound framework for fostering interfaith harmony and global religious fraternity. Referring to communities with divine scriptures, particularly Jews, Christians, and at times Zoroastrians, Sabians, and others, this concept emphasizes shared spiritual heritage, moral responsibility, and the value of coexistence. Quranic verses, such as Q.3:64 and Q.2:62, highlight a common ground rooted in belief in God, ethical conduct, and mutual respect. While acknowledging theological differences, the Quran advocates for respectful dialogue, safeguarding minority rights, and the promotion of pluralism.
The paper explores historical examples of interfaith collaboration, including the coexistence during the Abbasid era and Maimonides’ flourishing under Muslim rule, demonstrating the practical application of these principles. It further examines the inclusion of the Sabians as a precedent for valuing diverse spiritual paths and their contribution to a global fraternity of believers.
By revisiting the Quranic ethos of tolerance, justice, and mercy, the paper presents a vision for addressing contemporary interfaith tensions. It emphasizes the need for dialogue, the protection of religious freedoms, and the celebration of shared values as essential steps toward a more inclusive and harmonious world. The concept of Ahl al-Kitab offers a timeless blueprint for transcending religious boundaries, transforming diversity into a source of strength, and uniting humanity in a collective moral and spiritual pursuit.
The Quranic concept of “People of the Book” or “Family of the Book” stands as a beacon of hope, offering a guiding light for fostering interfaith harmony and mutual respect. Referring to religious communities that received divine scriptures before the advent of Islam—principally Jews and Christians, and at times Zoroastrians, Sabians, and others—this term serves as a bridge over troubled waters, emphasizing shared spiritual heritage, moral responsibility, and the value of coexistence. Rooted in a divine vision of inclusivity, the concept provides a framework for building a global religious fraternity marked by collaboration, justice, and shared purpose.
The Quran underscores the common threads weaving together the People of the Book and Muslims, highlighting their shared belief in God and divine revelation. Verses like Q.3:199 shine a spotlight on those among the People of the Book who uphold their faith with sincerity and humility:
“There are indeed among the people of the Book some who believe in God and in what has been bestowed from on high upon you and in what has been bestowed upon them, humbling themselves before God.”
This recognition invites Muslims to break bread with followers of other faiths, fostering relationships built on mutual respect and understanding. While theological differences—such as the rejection of the Trinity (Q.4:171) and the Crucifixion (Q.4:157)—are akin to different shades of the same spectrum, the Quran’s overarching message encourages coexistence, focusing on the ties that bind rather than the walls that divide.
As Farid Esack astutely observes, the Quran does not issue a blanket condemnation of the People of the Book. Instead, it acknowledges that beliefs and behaviours are not inherent or static, but rather complex and dynamic. To guard against unfair generalizations, the Quran often qualifies statements about other religious communities with exceptions (e.g., Q.3:75). Moreover, the Quranic discourse frequently employs phrases like “from among them” (3:75), “many among them” (2:109; 5:66; 22:17; 57:26), “most of them” (2:105; 7:102; 10:36), “some of them” (2:145), and “a group among them” (3:78), which underscore the diversity and individuality within communities. (Esack, pp. 146-147.)
The Quranic Basis of Islamic Tolerance
In the Quran, beliefs in the truth of Christian and Jewish doctrine are encapsulated in the term “People of the Book”, or people who have received and believed in earlier revelations from the prophets of the Abrahamic tradition. The pluralistic nature of the term People of the Book is evident in the use of the noun “book” in the singular and not the plural, meant to emphasize that Jews, Christians, and Muslims follow one and the same book, not various conflicting scriptures. (Asani, p.52–60).
Islam, as articulated in the Quran, emphasizes a profound ethos of tolerance, respect, and coexistence with other religious communities, particularly Jews, Christians, and Sabians. These groups are acknowledged for their shared spiritual heritage and ethical values. The Quran provides a framework for harmonious interfaith relations rooted in mutual respect, safeguarding rights, and promoting understanding. This paper explores the Quranic basis for this inclusivity and its relevance for fostering peace and pluralism in contemporary societies.
The Quran also accepts all Abrahamic prophets before Muhammad and recognizes Jewish scripture—the Talmud—and Christian scripture—the Gospel—as sacred books. Furthermore, under Prophet Muhammad’s leadership, Christians and Jews received the special status of dhimmi, or “protected peoples”, and al-mu’minin, or “the faithful” (Upton, p. 2). These two statuses indicate that the Prophet considered both Christians and Jews to be monotheistic “believers” alongside Muslims. Far from denying the validity of Christianity and Judaism, Muhammad regarded them as standing in de jure with Islam as religions from the same God. (Yitik, p.2).
The emphasis the Quran places on respecting the “People of the Book” indicates that Muslims are tolerant of religious groups so long as they are monotheists, or believers in “one God”. While the Quran frequently calls on and encourages non-Muslims to worship God according to “Islamic principles”, the Islamic holy text can be interpreted as extending freedom of religion to “disbelievers” or those outside the Abrahamic tradition. Verse 9:6 of the Quran, for example, provides protection for “idolaters”: “If any of the idolaters seek your protection, protect him till he hears the word of God, then convey him to his place of safety. This is because they are people who don’t know.” (Q.9:6)
In Quran, a profound invitation is extended to the People of the Scripture:
“O People of the Scripture, come to a word that is equitable between us and you—that we will not worship except God and not associate anything with Him and not take one another as lords instead of God.” (Q.3:64)
This verse embodies a spirit of ecumenism and shared values, inviting Jews and Christians to a common understanding of monotheism. By acknowledging their sacred texts and shared faith in the one God, the Quran fosters a sense of spiritual kinship, inclusivity, and mutual respect, laying the groundwork for peaceful engagement and cooperation.
This recognition also challenges exclusivist interpretations of religious identity, advocating for a broader perspective that transcends sectarian boundaries. The Quran’s emphasis on unity in worship and ethical conduct demonstrates its universal outlook, which respects diversity while promoting shared values.
The Quran underscores the universality and continuity of its message, emphasizing that its teachings are part of a broader, shared heritage. As stated in Quran 41:43, “Nothing is said to you [O Prophet] that was not said to the messengers before you.” This verse highlights the common thread that runs through divine revelations across time and space. The Quran encourages Muslims to interact with Jews and Christians through respectful dialogue, even in theological disagreements. It advises:
“Do not argue with the People of the Book except in a way that is best, except for those who commit injustice among them, and say, ‘We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you. And our God and your God is one; and we are in submission to Him.'” (Q. 29:46)
This verse underscores the importance of civility and wisdom in interfaith discussions, discouraging hostility or coercion. The Quran’s approach aligns with a broader Islamic principle of ihsan (excellence), which emphasizes kindness and moral integrity in all human interactions. Such guidance remains significant in today’s world, where religious differences often fuel conflict. By advocating respectful dialogue, the Quran provides a blueprint for addressing misunderstandings and building trust among diverse communities.
Q.9:6 highlights the Quran’s emphasis on safeguarding the rights and security of religious minorities. Historical records from the Prophet Muhammad’s time illustrate how this principle was implemented. For instance, the Constitution of Medina guaranteed the rights of Jews and Christians, ensuring their freedom to practice their religion and their inclusion as equal members of the community.
This commitment to minority rights reflects Islam’s broader principles of justice (adl) and mercy (rahma). It counters narratives of exclusion and highlights the Quran’s vision of a just society where all individuals, regardless of faith, are protected.
The Quran explicitly upholds the principle of religious freedom, declaring:
“There shall be no compulsion in religion. The right direction is distinct from the wrong.” (Q.2:256).
This verse emphasizes the sanctity of individual choice in matters of faith, rejecting forced conversions or coercion. It affirms that belief must stem from personal conviction rather than external pressure. This principle is foundational for pluralistic societies, where diverse religious practices can coexist.
In an era where religious intolerance often manifests as coercion or persecution, the Quran’s emphasis on freedom of belief serves as a reminder of the ethical imperative to respect others’ spiritual autonomy.
The Quran’s tolerance extends to the Sabians, a lesser-known religious group, illustrating its inclusivity:
“Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabians—those [among them] who believed in God and the Last Day and did righteousness—will have their reward with their Lord.” (Q.2:62).
By recognizing the righteousness of diverse groups based on their faith in God and moral conduct, the Quran emphasizes universal values over sectarian identity. This acknowledgment underscores that salvation and divine reward are not confined to one religious community but are accessible to all who pursue righteousness.
Such inclusivity challenges exclusivist narratives and promotes a vision of shared humanity, where ethical values and belief in accountability transcend religious boundaries.
The Quranic principles of tolerance, respect, and protection for Jews, Christians, and Sabians offer valuable lessons for addressing interfaith tensions in the modern world. These principles advocate for dialogue, mutual understanding, and the recognition of shared values as pathways to peace.
In today’s pluralistic societies, where religious diversity often coexists with tensions and prejudices, the Quran’s emphasis on coexistence serves as a model for fostering harmony. By prioritizing shared ethical values, respecting differences, and safeguarding rights, the Quran provides a timeless framework for interfaith engagement.
The Quran’s approach to Jews, Christians, and Sabians reflects a profound commitment to tolerance, respect, and coexistence. Its recognition of shared spiritual heritage, emphasis on respectful dialogue, protection of minority rights, and upholding of religious freedom establish a framework for peaceful interfaith relations. In a world often marked by division, the Quranic vision offers a pathway to unity through mutual understanding and shared values. By revisiting these principles, contemporary societies can embrace a more inclusive and harmonious model of coexistence.
Incorporation of Sabians as a Prelude to Global Fraternity of Believers
The Quran’s mention of the Sabians in Q.2:62, Q. 5:69, and Q. 22:17 emphasizes a universal and inclusive criterion for salvation: belief in God, good deeds, and moral accountability. This acknowledgment establishes a profound theological precedent for recognizing and respecting diverse spiritual traditions.
The Sabians, a religious group mentioned in the Quran, may also be regarded as believers outside the Judeo-Christian tradition. This recognition underscores the Quran’s acknowledgment of a broader spiritual landscape, where divine guidance and truth can be found beyond the Abrahamic faiths. The Sabians, though shrouded in historical ambiguity, hold a distinctive and symbolic place in Islamic theology as exemplars of interfaith inclusion and divine justice. Their recognition in the Quran and subsequent Islamic thought provides a foundation for exploring the universal principles of coexistence, spiritual fraternity, and the shared moral compass of humanity.
The diverse interpretations surrounding the Sabians demonstrate Islam’s enduring commitment to intellectual and spiritual pluralism, showcasing a unique model of inclusivity that bridges cultural, theological, and philosophical divides. In contemporary discourse, the Sabians serve as a powerful metaphor for interfaith dialogue and unity, encouraging a focus on shared spiritual values rather than sectarian differences.
Their inclusion in Islamic scripture and thought offers practical and ethical lessons for building a more inclusive and harmonious world:
Spiritual Pluralism: Recognizing the divine in diverse paths fosters mutual respect and understanding.
Ethical Universality: Emphasizing good deeds and accountability over doctrinal conformity can unify humanity.
Dialogue and Cooperation: Historical engagements with Sabians reflect Islam’s broader ethos of engaging with intellectual and spiritual traditions.
The Quranic recognition of the Sabians and their subsequent treatment in Islamic thought serve as a powerful prelude to a global fraternity of believers, united by their shared humanity and commitment to spiritual values. By emphasizing ethical action, spiritual sincerity, and mutual respect, the Sabians highlight the potential for a harmonious coexistence rooted in shared human values. Their legacy challenges believers to transcend dogmatic divisions and build a collective moral and spiritual vision for humanity.
Historical Examples of Coexistence
History offers a rich tapestry of examples where the principles of the People of the Book have been successfully applied, demonstrating the power of peaceful coexistence to create a harmonious symphony of diverse cultures and faiths.
The Abbasid era, for instance, witnessed meaningful theological discussions between Nestorian Patriarch Timothy I and Caliph Al-Mahdi, fostering a climate of mutual respect and intellectual curiosity that bridged the divide between faiths. Similarly, the renowned Jewish philosopher Maimonides thrived under Muslim rule, serving as the physician to Saladin, a testament to the fertile ground of coexistence and mutual respect.
These examples echo the Quran’s call to unity and cooperation in the pursuit of good works:
“For each of you [communities] We have established a Law and a Way… So vie with one another in good works.” (Q.5:48).
Such cooperation highlights humanity’s capacity to transcend its differences and work together towards a common goal, much like a river that nourishes all the lands it touches, giving rise to flourishing societies that celebrate diversity and promote peace.
However, history is not without its dark clouds. Moments of tension, like the Christian martyrs of Cordoba or strained relations between Byzantium and Muslim empires, serve as stark reminders of the complexities of interfaith interactions. These conflicts, much like weeds in a garden, threatened the beauty of coexistence and obscured the shared ground beneath.
As historian Zachary Karabell (1967-), the founder of the Progress Network at New America, president of River Twice Capital writes notes, focusing only on past conflicts is akin to wearing blinders that obscure the panoramic view of history’s rich tapestry. Revisiting history with an open heart and mind can breathe new life into the forgotten tales of collaboration and pave the way for reconciliation. Zachary Karabell notes that the phrase “Islam and the West” in the title is itself problematic, given the rich religious, philosophical, political and cultural interactions that the author masterfully describes, but the author is surely right in his conclusions: “If conflict is what we want to see, there is conflict. But if peace is what we are looking for, then peace is there to be found … Peace is woven into our collective past; it is there to be seen in our messy present; and it will be there in our shared future.” (Karabell, p. 285, 291)
The True Concept of Dhimma and Its relevance
Prophet Muhammad stated “Whoever oppresses a dhimmi or burdens a weight over him more than he can carry, I will be his enemy”. (Abu Dawud, Book 36, Hadith 4585) Similarly, he further said: “I am claimant of anyone who depresses a dhimmi. The one who I claimant of (in this world), I am also claimant of on the Day of Judgment.” (Abu Dawud, Book 19, Hadith 1707).
Quran 9:29, frequently misconstrued as the “sword verse,” has been a subject of controversy and misinterpretation. Challenging prevalent misconceptions, Asma Afsaruddin presents a contextualized understanding, offering a thoughtful re-examination of this verse:
“A holistic, cross-referential reading of the Quran with careful attention to the original Arabic allows us to credibly question and undermine interpretations that understand Q. 9:29 as containing a blanket condemnation of the People of the Book.” (Afsaruddin, p.40-41)
The Ottoman millet system of self-governing faith communities is fascinating, though complex and problematic echoes of it may have been heard by some in “that recent lecture” by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The legacy of colonialism and the fall of the Islamic empires is clear: Muslims “met the challenges of dominance; they are still struggling with the challenges of defeat.” (Karabell, p. 197)
Expanding the Concept of People of the Book and Building a Religious Fraternity
Over time, Islamic scholars extended the canopy of People of the Book to include other religious communities, such as Zoroastrians, Sabians, and even Hindus and Buddhists. This extension is a testament to the Quranic acknowledgment of diverse paths to divine truth, encapsulated in the verse:
“For every community there is a Messenger.” (Q.10:47)
The Quran’s pluralistic ethos also emphasizes protecting all places of worship, regardless of faith:
“Monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, where God’s name is much invoked, shall be protected.” (Q.22:40).
This inclusivity acts as a lighthouse, guiding societies through the storms of division toward the safe harbour of mutual respect.
The Quranic vision of People of the Book offers a timeless recipe for fostering global religious fraternity. To bring this vision to life, several steps are essential:
1. Promoting Interfaith Dialogue: Encouraging conversations around shared values is like planting seeds of understanding, which, when nurtured, grow into the sturdy trees of trust.
2. Highlighting Historical Cooperation: Revisiting and celebrating examples of interfaith collaboration is akin to polishing a mirror, allowing humanity to see its shared achievements reflected clearly.
3. Protecting Religious Freedom: Upholding the Quranic mandate to safeguard places of worship and ensure the rights of all faiths builds bridges over the chasms of division and fosters goodwill.
Expansion of People of the Book- Hindus and Buddhists
The great jurist, al-Shafi’i, founder of one of the four schools of law in Sunni Islam, asserted that the Quranic references to the scriptures of Abraham and Moses (suhufi Ibrahīm wa Musa; 87:19), and the scriptures of the ancients (zubur al-awwalīn; 26:196) can be used as the basis for arguing that God revealed scriptures other than those specifically mentioned in the Quran. He concludes that Zoroastrians, for example, can also be included in the category of Ahl al-Kitāb, and not treated only as a ‘protected community’, Ahl al-dhimma. (Friedmann, p. 81,)
In the Quran, People of the Book are identified as the Jews, the Christians, the Sabians, and—according to some interpretations—the Zoroastrians. Beginning in the 8th century, this recognition was extended to other groups, such as the Samaritans (who are closely related to the Jews), and, controversially, Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs, among others. (Kimball, p. 195) In most applications, “People of the Book” is simply used by Muslims to refer to the followers of Judaism and Christianity, with which Islam shares many values, guidelines, and principles.
Historically, in countries and regions following Islamic law, the religious communities that were recognized by Muslims as People of the Book were subject to a legal status known as dhimmi, meaning that they had the option to pay a special head tax called jizya in exchange for being granted the privilege to practice their faith and govern their community according to the rules and norms of their own religion. (Esposito, p. 10.)
It is instructive to glance at the roots of this Muslim appraisal of the religio-juridical status of Buddhism. One of the earliest and most decisive encounters between Islam and Buddhism on the soil of India took place during the short but successful campaign of the young Umayyad general, Muhammad b. Qasim in Sind, launched in 711. During the conquest of this predominantly Buddhist province, he received petitions from the indigenous Buddhists and Hindus in the important city of Brahmanabad regarding the restoration of their temples and the upholding of their religious rights generally. He consulted his superior, the governor of Kufa, Hajjaj b. Yusuf, who in turn consulted his religious scholars. The result of these deliberations was the formulation of an official position which was to set a decisive precedent of religious tolerance for the ensuing centuries of Muslim rule in India. Hajjaj wrote to Muhammad b. Qasim a letter which was translated into what became known as the ‘Brahmanabad settlement’: ‘The request of the chiefs of Brahmanabad about the building of Budh and other temples, and toleration in religious matters, is just and reasonable. I do not see what further rights we can have over them beyond the usual tax. They have paid homage to us and have undertaken to pay the fixed tribute [jizya] to the Caliph. Because they have become dhimmis we have no right whatsoever to interfere in their lives and property. Do permit them to follow their own religion. No one should prevent them.’ (Khushalani, p. 156)
The Arab historian, al-Baladhuri, quotes Muhammad b. Qasim’s famous statement was made at Alor (Arabised as ‘al-Rur’), a city besieged for a week, and then taken without force, according to strict terms: there was to be no bloodshed, and the Buddhist faith would not be opposed. Muhammad b. Qasim was reported to have said: The temples [lit. al-Budd, but referring to the temples of the Buddhists and the Hindus, as well as the Jains] shall be treated by us as if they were the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews, and the fire temples of the Magians. (Hamza Yusuf, p.8)
Muslims are permitted to consume food prepared by People of the Book, as long as it is halal (permissible) according to Islamic dietary laws (Quran 5:5). This includes meat slaughtered according to Islamic guidelines.
Muslims are allowed to make marital relations with the People of the Book. Kecia Ali, a feminist Islamic scholar, writes on interreligious marriage thus: There is no clear prohibition of Muslim women marrying non-Muslim People of the Book in the Quran because the Quran does not address the issue as explicitly as it does with Muslim men being permitted to marry People of the Book. Moreover, there are multiple cases throughout the Quran in which the text only refers to men but it is implied that the verse also applies to women. To interpret the Quran as prohibiting women from interfaith marriage is itself a significant interpretative leap, going beyond the verse itself. (Ali, pp. 20-21)
While there are no explicit prohibitions against social interactions with People of the Book, Muslims are encouraged to maintain their Islamic values and principles (See Q.60:8-9). Muslims are expected to treat people of other faiths with respect and kindness, avoiding derogatory language or actions (Q.6:108).
Fostering greater understanding and tolerance among Muslims from diverse traditions, such as Shiism, Sunnism, and Ibadism, is crucial for promoting unity and cohesion within the Muslim community. By recognizing their shared Islamic heritage, Muslims can extend mutual respect and consideration, acknowledging each other as part of the broader Islamic community, or even as People of the Book. This categorization can be naturally extended to include Sikhs, Baha’ís, and Ahmadis, who all hold the Quran in high esteem as a divine revelation.
The Quranic concept of People of the Book is not merely a historical relic, but a vibrant, living ideal that can transform our fractured world. By emphasizing shared values, mutual respect, and collaboration, it offers a roadmap for transcending historical grievances and building a future where diversity is celebrated as a mosaic of strength, rather than a source of division.
Ultimately, embracing this inclusive vision can help create a more harmonious world, where people from diverse backgrounds can coexist peacefully, united by their shared humanity.
As we strive to build a more harmonious world, the concept of People of the Book reminds us that our differences are not insurmountable barriers, but rather opportunities for growth and understanding. By embracing this vision, we can work together to address the complex challenges that confront us, from poverty and inequality to climate change and social injustice.
Ultimately, embracing the Quranic concept of People of the Book is a call to action – a reminder that we all have a role to play in building a more just, peaceful, and united world. By turning swords into ploughshares and cultivating a spirit of mutual respect and cooperation, we can create a brighter future for all humanity, where everyone can thrive and reach their full potential.
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V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. He receives his mail at [email protected]
