The contemporary world is beset by profound divisions, often fueled by ancient animosities repackaged for a modern age. Hatred, manifesting in virulent forms such as Judeophobia (often termed anti-Semitism), Islamophobia, and Christianophobia, corrodes the social fabric, threatens communal safety, and violates the most fundamental principles of human dignity. These specific phobias, targeting Jewish, Muslim, and Christian communities respectively, thrive on ignorance, fear, stereotyping, and the deliberate distortion of religious traditions. Christians face persecution, discrimination, violence, and hostile rhetoric in various parts of the world, whether as vulnerable minorities or as targets of cultural or political antagonism. In the face of such escalating prejudice against all three Abrahamic communities, political solutions often prove insufficient, secular ethics struggle for universal traction, and the very religious traditions sometimes invoked to justify hatred must be reclaimed for their core messages of peace and justice.
This paper proposes a powerful, albeit challenging, solution: the conscious cultivation of a global “community of believers in righteousness.” This community would not be a new religion or syncretic movement, nor would it seek to erase the distinct theological identities of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Instead, it would be a coalition of conscience, drawing deeply from the shared ethical and spiritual wells of the Bible (encompassing both the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and the New Testament) and the Quran. By focusing on the profound scriptural imperatives for righteousness—understood holistically as encompassing justice, compassion, truthfulness, and unwavering commitment to human dignity—such a community can offer a potent spiritual and social antidote to the poisons of hatred, Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia. This endeavor requires a courageous exploration of shared values, a willingness to confront historical failings within each tradition, and a commitment to collaborative action grounded in divine guidance.
Foundational Theological Principles for Cooperation: One God, One Humanity
At the heart of the Abrahamic faiths lies a revolutionary monotheism that carries profound implications for human relationships. Recognizing the One God necessitates recognizing the fundamental unity and equality of God’s creation, particularly humanity.
• A. The Divine Image and the Single Soul: Affirming Inherent Human Dignity
o Biblical Insight (Imago Dei): The foundational narrative of Genesis declares that humanity, male and female, is created “in the image of God” (Genesis 1:26-27). This concept, central to Jewish and Christian anthropology, bestows an intrinsic, inalienable dignity and infinite worth upon every single human being, irrespective of ethnicity, nationality, social status, or belief. To denigrate, dehumanize, or incite hatred against any person or group (Jewish, Christian, Muslim, or otherwise) is therefore not merely a social transgression but a theological affront—a desecration of the Divine reflection within the other. This principle radically undermines the hierarchical thinking and dehumanizing rhetoric inherent in Judeophobia (which often denies Jewish humanity or casts Jews as uniquely malevolent), Islamophobia (which frequently portrays Muslims as inherently violent, backward, or monolithic), and Christianophobia (which can stereotype Christians as inherently intolerant, colonialist, ignorant, or politically monolithic). The New Testament further universalizes this, emphasizing that barriers are broken down in Christ (Galatians 3:28) and that God shows no partiality (Acts 10:34-35).
o Quranic Insight (Creation from a Single Soul): The Quran echoes this theme of shared origin and inherent worth, stating that God created humanity “from a single soul” (Nafs Wahidah) and from it created its mate, scattering from them multitudes of men and women (Quran 4:1). It explicitly affirms: “We have certainly honored the children of Adam…” (Quran 17:70). This shared ancestry forms the basis of a universal human fraternity. Like the Imago Dei, this concept directly counters racist and supremacist ideologies. Crucially, the Quran declares that the standard of nobility before God is not lineage or ethnicity but righteousness: “O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous (Atqakum)” (Quran 49:13). This verse simultaneously affirms diversity and establishes piety/God-consciousness as the true measure of worth, directly refuting ethnic or religious supremacism against any group.
• B. Divine Will and the Purposeful Diversity of Peoples
o Biblical Insight (Nations and Tongues): While the story of the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11) depicts the scattering of languages as a consequence of human hubris, later prophetic visions embrace diversity as part of God’s ultimate plan for peace. Isaiah envisions nations streaming to Jerusalem to learn God’s ways, not necessarily to convert wholesale, but to live in harmony under God’s universal reign (Isaiah 2:2-4). The New Testament Book of Revelation culminates in a vision of people “from every nation, tribe, people and language, standing before the throne” (Revelation 7:9), suggesting redeemed diversity, not assimilation. Acts 17:26 affirms God’s sovereignty in establishing the times and boundaries for nations, implying a purpose behind this diversity, which includes the flourishing of distinct religious communities.
o Quranic Insight (“That You May Know One Another”): The Quran presents human diversity even more explicitly as a sign of God’s creative power and a means for mutual enrichment. The aforementioned verse (49:13) states the purpose of being made into nations and tribes is “that you may know one another” (li-ta’arafu). This implies interaction, learning, and mutual recognition, the very opposite of the isolation, suspicion, and hostility fostered by phobias targeting Jews, Muslims, or Christians. Another verse states, “And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the diversity of your languages and your colors. Indeed, in that are signs for those of knowledge” (Quran 30:22). Religious diversity is also acknowledged: “For every community We have appointed a rite which they are to perform…” (Quran 22:67) and “To each among you We have prescribed a law and a clear way. If Allah had willed, He would have made you one community, but [He intended] to test you in what He has given you; so race to [all that is] good” (Quran 5:48). This suggests diversity is a divine test, prompting competition in virtue and good deeds, not conflict or suppression of any recognized faith community.
These foundational principles—shared divine origin, inherent dignity, and purposeful diversity—establish a powerful theological counter-narrative to the divisive ideologies underpinning Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia. A community of believers in righteousness must constantly reaffirm these truths for all people.
The Essence of Righteousness: Beyond Ritual to Ethical Action
Both the Bible and the Quran insist that true faith is not merely intellectual assent or ritual observance, but is demonstrated through righteous conduct, particularly in one’s relationships with God and fellow human beings. This righteousness has several key dimensions crucial for combating hatred in all its forms.
• A. Righteousness as Justice and Equity (Tzedakah/Adl, Qist)
o Biblical Insight: The Hebrew concept of Tzedakah is far richer than mere “charity.” It encompasses righteousness, justice, fairness, and the imperative to create a just society. The Torah commands, “Justice, justice shall you pursue” (Deuteronomy 16:20). The prophets relentlessly decried social injustice as a betrayal of the covenant. Amos famously declared God’s rejection of solemn assemblies unaccompanied by justice: “But let justice roll on like a river, righteousness like a never-failing stream!” (Amos 5:24). Isaiah links true fasting not to self-affliction but to “loose the chains of injustice… to set the oppressed free” (Isaiah 58:6). Micah summarizes the divine requirement: “To act justly (Mishpat) and to love mercy (Hesed) and to walk humbly with your God” (Micah 6:8). Jesus upheld this prophetic emphasis, condemning religious leaders who focused on minutiae while neglecting “the more important matters of the law—justice, mercy and faithfulness” (Matthew 23:23). This unwavering demand for justice directly confronts the systemic discrimination and legal inequities often faced by victims of Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia.
o Quranic Insight: Justice (Adl and Qist) is a paramount virtue in the Quran, mentioned numerous times. Believers are commanded: “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives…” (Quran 4:135). This demands impartiality that transcends personal ties. Another verse emphasizes justice even towards adversaries: “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm for Allah, witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness (Taqwa)…” (Quran 5:8). This is a direct rebuke to allowing prejudice (like Judeophobia, Islamophobia, or Christianophobia) to warp one’s sense of fairness. Righteousness (Birr) itself is defined not just by belief or prayer direction, but by concrete actions including belief, prayer, charity, fulfilling contracts, and patience (Quran 2:177). This practical definition grounds righteousness in tangible acts of social justice and care for all.
• B. Righteousness as Compassion and Mercy (Hesed/Rahmah)
o Biblical Insight: Hesed is a core attribute of God in the Hebrew Bible—steadfast love, loving-kindness, covenantal loyalty, and mercy. Human beings are called to emulate this. The cornerstone ethical command, “Love your neighbor as yourself” (Leviticus 19:18), is radical in its demand for empathy and identification with the other. The command extends explicitly to the outsider: “The foreigner residing among you must be treated as your native-born. Love them as yourself, for you were foreigners in Egypt” (Leviticus 19:34; also Deuteronomy 10:19). This constant reminder of shared vulnerability is designed to cultivate compassion. Jesus intensified this ethic, commanding love even for enemies (Matthew 5:44) and illustrating neighborliness through the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37), where ethnic and religious animosity is overcome by active compassion for someone in need, regardless of their identity. True righteousness, therefore, necessitates cultivating empathy and acting mercifully, especially towards those targeted by hatred, including Jews, Muslims, and Christians.
o Quranic Insight: Mercy (Rahmah) is arguably the most emphasized divine attribute in the Quran. Two names derived from this root, Ar-Rahman (The Entirely Merciful) and Ar-Rahim (The Especially Merciful), begin almost every chapter. Prophet Muhammad himself is described as a “mercy to the worlds” (Rahmatan lil-‘alamin – Quran 21:107). Believers are consistently urged to embody mercy, forgiveness, kindness, and gentleness. The Quran praises those “who restrain anger and who pardon the people – and Allah loves the doers of good” (Quran 3:134). Responding to evil with good is encouraged: “And not equal are the good deed and the bad. Repel [evil] by that [deed] which is better; and thereupon the one whom between you and him is enmity [will become] as though he was a devoted friend” (Quran 41:34). This emphasis on divine and human mercy directly counters the hardness of heart, cruelty, and vengefulness inherent in hate movements directed at any faith community. A Muslim Hadith (prophetic tradition) states, “Those who are merciful will be shown mercy by the Most Merciful. Be merciful to those on the earth and the One in the heavens will be merciful to you.” (Tirmidhi). This universalizes the call to compassion.
• C. Righteousness as Truthfulness and Integrity (Emet/Sidq)
o Biblical Insight: The Ten Commandments prohibit bearing false witness (Exodus 20:16). Proverbs repeatedly extols honesty and warns against deceitful speech (“Lying lips are an abomination to the LORD, but those who act faithfully are his delight” – Proverbs 12:22). Righteousness requires speaking truth, even when difficult, and maintaining integrity in all dealings. This commitment directly challenges the core mechanisms of Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia, which rely heavily on stereotypes, misinformation, conspiracy theories, and outright lies to demonize their target groups. A righteous community must be committed to seeking and disseminating truth, debunking falsehoods concerning all three faiths, and refusing to participate in slander.
o Quranic Insight: Truthfulness (Sidq) is a highly praised virtue in the Quran. Believers are commanded to “be conscious of Allah and be with those who are true (in word and deed)” (Quran 9:119). Bearing false witness is listed among major sins. Suspicion and backbiting, often precursors to prejudice, are strongly discouraged: “O you who have believed, avoid much [negative] assumption. Indeed, some assumption is sin. And do not spy or backbite each other…” (Quran 49:12). Believers are told to “speak a word directed to the right” (Quran 33:70). Upholding truth means critically evaluating information, rejecting harmful narratives about any religious group, engaging honestly, and fostering understanding based on facts rather than fear or conjecture.
The Vision of the Community: A Model of Ethical Coexistence
Abrahamic traditions envision a community called to embody these principles of righteousness, serving as a model and a force for good in the wider world. This community is defined not by ethnicity or privilege, but by shared commitment to divine guidance and ethical living toward all people.
• A. The Chosen/Guided Community (Am Segulah/Ummah Wasat)
o Biblical Insight: Israel’s designation as a “treasured possession” (Am Segulah) and a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:5-6) was not meant to imply inherent superiority, but a unique responsibility. Their calling was to live by God’s Torah (Law/Teaching) so faithfully that their society would embody justice and compassion, thereby becoming a “light to the nations” (Isaiah 42:6, 49:6), drawing others to God through ethical example. The New Testament reimagines this community as the Church, the “Body of Christ,” where ethnic and social distinctions are ideally overcome (Galatians 3:28). This community is called to live distinctively holy lives, marked by love and good deeds, so that outsiders might see their actions and glorify God (Matthew 5:16, 1 Peter 2:9-12). The emphasis is on ethical witness towards all, not ethnic exclusivity.
o Quranic Insight: The Muslim community (Ummah) is described as an Ummah Wasat – a “community justly balanced” or “middle nation” (Quran 2:143). Their purpose is “that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger will be a witness over you.” This role involves actively “enjoining what is right (Ma’ruf) and forbidding what is wrong (Munkar)” (Quran 3:104, 3:110). Like the biblical concept, this designation confers responsibility, not inherent privilege. The ideal Ummah transcends race and nationality, united by faith (Iman) and submission (Islam) to God’s will. Its “balanced” nature implies avoiding extremes and embodying justice, moderation, and piety in its dealings with all communities. When understood correctly as a call to ethical leadership and moral responsibility, this concept directly challenges ethnocentric or faith-based supremacism.
• B. Mutual Responsibility, Care, and Solidarity
o Biblical Insight: The Torah includes numerous provisions for communal welfare: laws for leaving gleanings for the poor and the stranger (Leviticus 19:9-10), Sabbath rest for servants and animals (Exodus 20:10), and cyclical debt release (Deuteronomy 15). The early Church described in Acts practiced radical sharing of resources “so that there were no needy persons among them” (Acts 4:34). Paul urges believers to “bear one another’s burdens, and so fulfill the law of Christ” (Galatians 6:2) and to “rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn” (Romans 12:15). This internal solidarity, rooted in shared faith and righteousness, should naturally extend outwards as hospitality (philoxenia – love of the stranger) and care for all, particularly the vulnerable, regardless of their faith.
o Quranic Insight: The Quran emphasizes the brotherhood and sisterhood of believers: “The believers are but brothers, so make settlement between your brothers…” (Quran 49:10). Mutual support, consultation (Shura), and collective responsibility are paramount. The obligation of Zakat (purifying charity) institutionalized care for the needy within the community, while Sadaqah (voluntary charity) encourages broader generosity. Enjoining good and forbidding evil is presented as a collective duty. This fosters a strong sense of communal well-being and shared responsibility, grounded in the practical application of faith and righteous action. This internal cohesion, when extended ethically, becomes a powerful model for broader societal solidarity that includes respectful and just interactions with non-Muslims.
• C. A Historical Precedent: The Hilf al-Fudul (Alliance of the Virtuous)
The pre-Islamic Arabian context, particularly Mecca, was marked by strong tribal loyalties (Asabiyyah) which often led to injustice, especially against those lacking powerful tribal protection. The Hilf al-Fudul stands out as a remarkable exception. Formed around 590 CE by several Quraysh clans, this pact aimed specifically to uphold justice, protect the weak (including visitors and merchants from outside Mecca), and collectively resist oppression, regardless of tribal affiliation. Its impetus was a specific incident where a merchant from Yemen was wronged by a powerful Meccan, and his pleas for justice were initially ignored.
Crucially, the Prophet Muhammad, then a young man long before his prophethood, was an enthusiastic participant in this alliance. He is reported to have later said, even after Islam was established, “I witnessed in the house of Abdullah ibn Jud’an a pact which I would not exchange for the best camels; and if I were called to it now [in Islam], I would respond.” This endorsement highlights the compatibility of Islam’s core values with universal ethical alliances based on righteousness, justice, and the protection of the vulnerable—principles that transcend specific religious affiliation and are essential for combating all forms of group-based hatred. The Hilf al-Fudul serves as a powerful historical analogue for a multi-faith community uniting for justice.
Righteousness as the Direct Antidote: Dismantling Hatred and Phobias
Applying these deeply embedded principles of righteousness from the Bible and Quran directly addresses the roots and manifestations of Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia.
• A. Affirming Common Humanity vs. Dehumanization:
As established, the core concepts of Imago Dei and creation from a single soul fundamentally contradict the dehumanizing tactics used by hate movements. Judeophobia often relies on monstrous caricatures, Islamophobia on monolithic stereotypes, and Christianophobia on generalizations painting Christians as uniformly oppressive or irrational. A community grounded in righteousness actively combats these by consistently affirming the shared humanity and God-given dignity of every individual, challenging stereotypes of all three groups with personal stories and factual information.
• B. Justice and Protection for the “Other” (Ger/Dhimmi Principles):
o Biblical Ger: The Hebrew Bible’s repeated injunctions to love and protect the Ger (stranger, sojourner, resident alien) – based on Israel’s own experience of vulnerability in Egypt – establish a powerful ethic of minority rights and empathy. This principle demands fair treatment, access to justice, and protection from exploitation for those living as minorities within a society. It directly counters the nativist and exclusionary impulses often driving phobias against any religious or ethnic minority.
o Quranic Dhimmi: The historical concept of Dhimmi (protected peoples), primarily applied to Jews and Christians (“People of the Book”) living under Muslim rule, is complex and its application varied significantly throughout history. However, its ideal ethical core, rooted in Quranic verses like “There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion” (2:256) and commands for justice (5:8), aimed to guarantee protection of life, property, and freedom of worship for these non-Muslim communities. While historical practice often falls short and the concept itself is debated in modern contexts, the underlying principle of guaranteeing rights and protection for religious minorities, when ethically applied, stands in stark opposition to the persecution and forced assimilation sometimes faced by Jews, Christians, and other minorities. A righteous community draws on this principle to advocate for robust legal protections and social acceptance for all religious minorities, including Christians in non-Christian majority settings and Muslims and Jews in Christian-majority or other settings.
• C. Overcoming Ignorance with Knowledge and Interaction (Da’at/’Ilm, Tafakkur): Abrahamic traditions value knowledge and understanding. Biblical wisdom literature emphasizes seeking wisdom (Chokmah) and understanding (Binah). Righteousness involves moving beyond prejudice fueled by ignorance (Da’at). The Quran places immense emphasis on seeking knowledge (‘Ilm) and reflection (Tafakkur). The command to “know one another” (49:13) necessitates active engagement, listening, and learning across cultural and religious lines. Hatred thrives in echo chambers of misinformation. A community of righteousness actively promotes interfaith education, dialogue, and personal encounters involving Jews, Christians, and Muslims to replace ignorance and suspicion with accurate knowledge and mutual understanding.
• D. Replacing Enmity with Reconciliation and Forgiveness (Shalom/Salam, Maghfirah): Abrahamic traditions, while realistically acknowledging conflict, offer pathways to peace and reconciliation. The Hebrew Bible envisions Shalom (peace, wholeness, well-being) as the ideal state. Jesus’ teachings on loving enemies and forgiveness offer a radical alternative to cycles of vengeance. Paul urges believers to “live at peace with everyone” and “overcome evil with good” (Romans 12:18, 21). The Quran frequently praises forgiveness as superior to retribution and encourages repelling evil with good (41:34). Salam (peace) is a core Islamic value. While defensive struggle is permitted under strict conditions, inclination towards peace is mandated if the adversary seeks it (Quran 8:61). A community of righteousness actively promotes practices of conflict resolution, restorative justice, and forgiveness to break cycles of historical grievance and build bridges across divides marked by Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia, acknowledging the complex histories of conflict involving all three groups.
Building the Community: Practical Initiatives and Navigating Challenges
Translating this vision into reality requires intentional effort and concrete action. It is not merely a theological exercise but a call to build tangible structures and engage in specific practices.
• A. Concrete Steps and Initiatives:
1. Deep Tri-Faith Dialogue and Scriptural Study: Engaging seriously with each other’s scriptures (Bible and Quran), focusing on shared ethical themes of justice, mercy, human dignity, and peace. Joint study groups exploring these themes can build profound understanding and trust among Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
2. Collaborative Social Justice Projects: Working together on issues of common concern—poverty, refugees, racism, environmental care—demonstrates shared values in action. Specific focus should be given to projects supporting victims of Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia, and combating hate crimes against all three communities.
3. Joint Educational and Awareness Campaigns: Developing resources for the public that accurately portray Jewish, Christian, and Muslim history, beliefs, and practices, explicitly countering common stereotypes and misinformation about all three groups. Utilizing media to amplify messages of shared values and mutual respect.
4. Shared Rituals and Cultural Celebrations (Appropriately): Finding opportunities for shared prayers for peace (respecting distinct liturgical traditions), joint participation in civic events, or sharing cultural heritage to foster personal connections and break down barriers of unfamiliarity among the three Abrahamic faiths.
5. Establishing Councils of Conscience: Forming local and international councils of respected Jewish, Christian, and Muslim leaders and scholars committed to this vision. These councils could issue joint statements condemning acts of hatred against any of the communities, provide ethical guidance, and coordinate collaborative initiatives.
6. Advocacy for Religious Freedom and Minority Rights: Collectively advocating for legal and social protections for all religious communities worldwide, ensuring that laws against hate speech and discrimination are enforced fairly, and defending the rights of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim minorities wherever they are threatened.
• B. Overcoming Obstacles and Challenges:
1. Historical Baggage and Trauma: Acknowledging the long and often painful history of conflict, polemics, persecution, and colonialism involving all three communities is essential. Healing requires honest confrontation with the past, including internal reflection on harms perpetrated by one’s own group, expressions of remorse, and a commitment not to repeat past mistakes.
2. Theological Differences: Significant theological differences exist (e.g., nature of God, prophethood, scripture) and should not be minimized. The goal is ethical solidarity, not doctrinal uniformity. Dialogue must respect these differences while focusing on common ethical mandates.
3. Internal Resistance and Extremism: Extremist voices within each tradition often actively oppose interfaith cooperation and promote hatred. The community of righteousness must be prepared to challenge these internal forces courageously, drawing strength from the core teachings of their own scriptures.
4. Misuse of Scripture: Sacred texts from all three traditions can be selectively quoted and distorted to justify hatred. The community must champion contextual, holistic, and ethically grounded interpretations, highlighting overarching messages of justice, mercy, and peace.
5. Political Manipulation: Religious identities of Jews, Christians, and Muslims are often manipulated for political ends. The community must strive to maintain its ethical independence and resist being co-opted by divisive political agendas.
6. Building Trust: Trust is fragile and takes time to build, especially given historical tensions. Consistency, transparency, humility, mutual vulnerability, and genuine commitment are crucial among all partners.
Navigating these challenges requires immense patience, wisdom, courage, and reliance on divine guidance. It necessitates ongoing self-critique within each participating community.
A Prophetic Imperative for Our Time
The proposal to build a world community of believers in righteousness, grounded in the shared ethical treasures of the Bible and the Quran, is more than a utopian dream; it is a prophetic imperative for our fractured world. Judeophobia, Islamophobia, and Christianophobia are not merely social problems; they are spiritual crises that betray the very heart of the Abrahamic covenant with a God of justice and mercy.
By focusing on the profound scriptural calls to recognize the divine image in every human, to pursue justice relentlessly, to embody radical compassion, to speak truth with integrity, and to build communities of mutual care and responsibility, Jews, Christians, and Muslims can forge a powerful alliance against hatred in all these forms. This alliance does not require theological compromise but demands ethical commitment. It draws strength from the conviction that the God worshiped in synagogue, church, and mosque is One, and that this God demands justice for the oppressed, protection for the vulnerable, and love for the neighbor—and even the stranger and the enemy.
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The historical example of the Hilf al-Fudul reminds us that uniting for righteousness across lines of division is possible and potent. Embracing the shared principles of Tzedakah/Adl, Hesed/Rahmah, and Emet/Sidq offers a pathway forward. Such a community, committed to “knowing one another” and racing towards good deeds, can become a beacon of hope, actively dismantling the structures of hatred targeting Jews, Muslims, and Christians, and demonstrating a lived alternative—a world where diverse believers unite under the banner of righteousness, finally making Shalom/Salam a tangible reality. This shared pursuit is perhaps the most authentic way to honor the divine call inherent in both the Bible and the Quran.
Bibliography
The Bible. New Revised Standard Version, Catholic Edition, National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA, 1993.
The Qur’an. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005.
Esposito, John L. What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. 2nd ed., New York: Oxford UP, 2011
Keener, Craig S., and John H. Walton, editors. NRSV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019
Leirvik, Oddbjørn. Interreligious Studies: A Relational Approach to Religious Activism and the Study of Religion. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014. Neusner, Jacob, et al., editors. The Encyclopedia of Judaism. 2nd ed., Leiden: Brill, 2005.
Sacks, Jonathan. Not in God’s Name: Confronting Religious Violence. New York: Schocken Books, 2015.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.
V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar specializing in Islamic humanism. With a deep commitment to advancing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress, his work aims to foster a just society, encourage critical thinking, and promote inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. He is dedicated to creating pathways for meaningful social change and intellectual growth through his scholarship. He can be reached at [email protected]
