Christian Zionism, a double-edged sword, has become a significant force in shaping Western attitudes toward Islam and Muslims. Rooted deep in the soil of dispensationalist theology, Christian Zionism interprets the Bible literally, particularly Old Testament prophecies, and views the modern State of Israel as the culmination of God’s grand design, the fulfilment of God’s covenant with the Jewish people. However, this movement’s theological framework has a dark underbelly, often perpetuating negative stereotypes about Islam and Muslims, fuelling the flames of Islamophobia. This paper delves into the complexities of Christian Zionism, exploring its historical, theological, and political dimensions, and examines how its rhetoric and actions pour oil on the fire, fuelling anti-Muslim sentiment.
Theological Foundations of Christian Zionism
The theological foundations of Christian Zionism are entrenched in dispensationalism, a framework that emerged in nineteenth-century England through figures like Louis Way (1772–1840) and John Nelson Darby (1800–1882). Dispensationalism, a form of premillennialism, organizes history into distinct periods, or “dispensations,” each marked by specific divine interactions with humanity. This framework, much like a divinely scripted play with predetermined acts, envisions God’s interventions at set intervals. A central tenet of this theology is the literal interpretation of biblical prophecy, particularly regarding the restoration of the Jewish people to their ancestral homeland. According to dispensationalists, the return of the Jews to Palestine is a pivotal event that precedes the Second Coming of Christ. In this worldview, the return is the linchpin in God’s unfolding plan, an hourglass marking the countdown to Christ’s return. This belief influenced British politicians such as Arthur Balfour (1848-1930), whose support for establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine was partially motivated by dispensationalist eschatology. (Grose, p. 67–71)
Dispensationalism gained significant traction in the United States through evangelists like Dwight Moody (1837–1899), C. I. Scofield (1843–1921), and William E. Blackstone (1841–1935). Scofield’s Reference Bible was especially influential in popularizing these ideas, embedding dispensationalist interpretations into the theological framework of many American evangelicals. Like a seed planted in fertile soil, Scofield’s interpretations flourished, shaping the spiritual imagination of countless believers. Later, the popularity of Hal Lindsey’s The Late Great Planet Earth and Timothy LaHaye’s ‘Left Behind’ series brought these eschatological views into the mainstream. Dispensationalists viewed key historical events—such as the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and the Six-Day War in 1967—as divine affirmations of biblical prophecy. For them, these events were not random; they were signposts on the prophetic highway. Israel’s control of Jerusalem and the West Bank was seen as the fulfilment of both Old and New Testament prophecies, solidifying the movement’s belief that the world was progressing toward the end times. (Weber, p. 184)
Central to Christian Zionist theology is the conviction that the Jewish people and the modern State of Israel are integral to God’s eschatological plan. Dispensationalists often cite passages like Ezekiel 37, which describes the vision of the dry bones, as evidence of God’s promise to restore the Jewish people. To them, this vision breathes life into their eschatological aspirations, a divine CPR (Cardiopulmonary resuscitation) for a nation once scattered. This restoration is viewed as a necessary precursor to Christ’s return, reinforcing the theological and political imperative of supporting Jewish sovereignty in the region. By framing the Jewish return as a divine mandate, Christian Zionism aligns itself with political Zionism, creating a powerful intersection of religious belief and geopolitical advocacy.
However, this theological framework often portrays Islam and Muslims as antagonists in the eschatological narrative. Christian Zionists frequently interpret passages such as Luke 21:24, which references the “times of the Gentiles,” to suggest that Islam opposes God’s plan. Islam is often cast as the proverbial Goliath standing in the way of God’s chosen David. This interpretation frames Islam as a monolithic and adversarial force, casting Muslims as enemies of both Israel and Christianity. Such perspectives oversimplify the diversity within Islam and can foster a binary, confrontational worldview that exacerbates religious and political tensions. By reducing Islam to a symbol of the “powers of darkness,” Christian Zionism perpetuates a narrative of good versus evil with significant implications for interfaith relations and global politics. (Sizer, p. 240)
Critics contend that Christian Zionism risks conflating religious prophecy with contemporary political agendas, which can hinder efforts for peace and justice in the Middle East. Like a ship charting its course by the stars of prophecy rather than the compass of present realities, the movement may drift away from the shores of reconciliation. By prioritizing eschatological expectations over the lived realities of Palestinians—both Christian and Muslim—the movement often marginalized voices that challenge its narrative. Furthermore, the emphasis on apocalyptic events may lead to a fatalistic outlook, discouraging constructive engagement with complex geopolitical issues. Despite these critiques, Christian Zionism remains a powerful force, shaping the beliefs and political actions of millions of Christians worldwide. In the United States, it continues to wield significant cultural and political influence, reinforcing U.S. support for Israel and impacting the discourse surrounding Middle Eastern policy.
Christian Zionism and the Demonization of Islam
Christian Zionism has played a significant role in promoting Islamophobic narratives, portraying Islam as inherently violent and a threat to global peace and Israel’s survival. Central to this rhetoric are figures like John Hagee and Hal Lindsey, who have popularized these views through books, sermons, and media appearances. Hagee, in particular, has claimed that the Qur’an explicitly promotes violence, arguing that Islamic terrorism is a natural outcome of Islamic teachings. (Hagee, Jerusalem, p. 32–33) To Hagee, the Qur’an is a powder keg, with violence baked into its very pages. Similarly, Lindsey asserts that Muslims are united in their goal to destroy Israel and overthrow Western civilization, framing Islam as a monolithic global threat. (Lindsey, The Final Battle, pp. 4–5) This narrative paints Islam with the broadest of brushes, reducing its vast diversity to a singular, menacing force. While such claims are widely disputed by scholars of Islam, they have gained traction among Christian Zionist audiences, reinforcing a binary worldview that casts Islam as the antithesis of Christianity and Judaism. The world is split into black and white, good and evil, with Islam occupying the darkest corner of the stage.
This demonization of Islam is not confined to fringe figures but has been widely disseminated through popular media. Books like Lindsey’s The Late Great Planet Earth and the Left Behind series by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins have reached millions of readers, embedding anti-Islamic narratives into their eschatological storylines. These works often depict Islam as a religion of conquest and its followers as fanatical extremists, perpetuating harmful stereotypes that fuel Islamophobia. Like ink staining an entire page, these narratives seep into public consciousness, spreading fear and hostility. By framing Islam as an existential threat, Christian Zionism cultivates a climate of fear and hostility toward Muslims. This portrayal not only distorts the diversity and complexity of Islamic beliefs and practices but also justifies policies and social attitudes that marginalize Muslim communities. (Weber, p. 188–96) The complex mosaic of Islam is reduced to a single, threatening caricature.
Christian Zionists have used biblical justifications to support land expropriation, home demolitions, and population transfers. These actions dehumanize Arabs and portray Muslims as perpetual threats. Stephen Sizer describes how Christian Zionism uses the Bible to legitimize racial superiority and deny international law, thus fuelling both Islamophobia and anti-Semitism. (Sizer, Soldiers, p. 162) In this framework, the Bible becomes a weapon, wielded to justify actions that would otherwise be condemned.
Christian Zionists often interpret Old Testament history and prophetic passages through themes of divine election, land, and people, applying these biblical narratives to modern geopolitical realities without consideration of historical or critical contexts. (Wagner, p. 82–84) They read ancient stories of conquest and covenant as if they were maps to the present, blurring the lines between sacred history and current politics.
Prominent Christian Zionist leaders like John Hagee and Walid Shoebat have propagated particularly extreme views, framing Islam as incompatible with Western civilization and a promoter of global domination. Hagee, for instance, has claimed that “Islam not only condones violence; it commands it,” portraying the faith as inherently violent and its followers as existential threats to peace. (Hagee, Jerusalem, p. 32) Shoebat, a former Muslim turned Christian Zionist speaker, has similarly painted Islam as an ideology of conquest, frequently making unsubstantiated claims about Muslim intentions and actions. Their rhetoric casts Islam as a creeping shadow, always looming, always advancing, with no room for nuance or understanding.
Christian Zionist eschatology revolves around the belief that the Battle of Armageddon will precede the Second Coming of Christ. According to this narrative, Muslims must either convert or face destruction. The choice is stark: salvation or obliteration. Muslims, along with Jews who do not accept Jesus, are cast as followers of the Antichrist. This apocalyptic framework promotes a “clash of civilizations” mentality that views Islam as an existential threat. (Mezvinsky, p. 42) The future is imagined as a battlefield, with Christianity and Islam locked in a fateful showdown.
Hal Lindsey’s books are replete with stereotypes portraying Muslims as unified in their hatred of Israel and Western civilization. Lindsey’s claims that Arab nations are obsessed with destroying Israel and that Islam encourages dishonesty to further its cause perpetuate Islamophobic myths. (Lindsey, Planet Earth, p. 256) His words drip with suspicion, painting a world where deceit and hatred lurk behind every Muslim face.
By framing Islam as an adversarial force in a cosmic struggle, Christian Zionism not only distorts interfaith understanding but also exacerbates tensions between religious communities. It sows the seeds of discord, cultivating a harvest of mistrust and animosity. This reductionist perspective fosters a divisive narrative that hinders constructive dialogue and peaceful coexistence, contributing to the broader climate of Islamophobia in both religious and political spheres. Instead of building bridges, it erects walls, with suspicion as the mortar and fear as the bricks.
Christian Zionism’s main base, white Evangelicals in the United States, holds some of the most negative views of Islam compared to other demographic groups. (Pew Research 2017) This negative perception is not limited to theological differences but extends to cultural and political domains. Many Christian Zionists believe that the God of Judaism and Christianity opposes the false deity worshipped by Muslims. (Spector, p.76) To them, the divide between Islam and Christianity is not just a river to be crossed—it is a chasm, wide and unbridgeable.
The Racialization of Islam and Muslims
Christian Zionism’s Islamophobia is deeply intertwined with racial and cultural hierarchies, positioning Christianity as synonymous with whiteness and modernity, while Islam is depicted as backward and barbaric. This perspective paints a stark, black-and-white portrait, where Christianity stands in the bright light of civilization while Islam is cast in the shadows of primitivism. Andrea Smith argues that Christian Zionism racializes both Arabs and Jews, constructing a narrative in which Christianity represents progress and civilization, while Islam is relegated to the realm of primitivism and violence. (Smith, p. 3) This racialized framework is a lens that distorts reality, erasing nuances and flattening the diversity of the Middle East into simplistic stereotypes.
One of the casualties of this narrative is the erasure of Palestinian Christians and other Arab Christians, who are marginalized within Christian Zionist discourse. Like branches cut from a larger tree, these communities are severed from their historical and cultural roots. By ignoring these groups, Christian Zionism reinforces a binary opposition between Christianity and Islam, further entrenching divisions and obscuring the complex realities of the region.
Moreover, Christian Zionism’s support for Israel is often framed as a defence of Western civilization against the perceived threat of Islam. This narrative conjures images of fortress walls, where Israel is the outpost of Western values and Islam is the ever-encroaching force. This perspective aligns with broader historical trends in which Islam has been constructed as the “other” in contrast to Euro-American values. As Mehdi Semati notes, Islam is frequently portrayed as incompatible with modernity, democracy, and Western culture—a trope that Christian Zionism amplifies. (Semati, p. 267) In this framework, Islam is depicted as a river that runs against the current of progress, forever resisting the tides of democracy and modernity.
By portraying Muslims as enemies of both Israel and the West, Christian Zionism reinforces a global narrative of civilizational conflict. This worldview, built on the scaffolding of fear and mistrust, constructs a stage where Islam is perpetually cast as the antagonist in a play of cultural superiority. Such a perspective not only justifies policies that prioritize Israeli interests over Palestinian rights but also perpetuates the notion that Muslims are perpetual outsiders and existential threats to the global order. Like a drumbeat of suspicion, this narrative echoes through both religious and political corridors, shaping perceptions and policies alike.
In doing so, Christian Zionism contributes to the racialization and demonization of Islam, with far-reaching consequences for interfaith relations and global politics. It creates a landscape of division, where bridges of understanding are torn down and walls of prejudice are fortified. The result is a world where dialogue is stifled, and peaceful coexistence becomes an ever-distant dream.
Political Implications and the Clash of Civilizations
Christian Zionism’s influence stretches far beyond the confines of theology, spilling over into the political arena like ink on parchment, particularly in the United States. Evangelical Christians, who form the backbone of the Christian Zionist movement, have played a pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy toward Israel. Their support is often framed through Islamophobic rhetoric that casts Israel as a bulwark against the tides of Islamic extremism. For instance, during the Gulf War of 1990, many Christian Zionist leaders interpreted the conflict as a fulfilment of biblical prophecy, with Iraq painted as the modern-day Babylon. (Mezvinsky, p. 43) This interpretation served as a clarion call, galvanizing both theological conviction and political advocacy to ensure unwavering support for Israel, seen as a divine mandate.
The political alliance between Christian Zionists and Israel reinforces the broader “clash of civilizations” narrative—a metaphorical battlefield where the Judeo-Christian West stands against an Islamic world perceived as an encroaching storm. Stephen Spector’s Evangelicals and Israel underscores how Christian Zionists see themselves as loyal allies of the Jewish people in a cosmic struggle against Islam. (Spector, p. vii) This perspective frames the Israeli-Palestinian conflict not as a mere geopolitical issue but as a spiritual war—a battle between the forces of good and evil. By draping Israel in the mantle of Western values and casting Islam as an existential threat, Christian Zionism perpetuates a black-and-white worldview that reduces nuanced realities to simplistic binaries.
This binary lens has profound consequences for international relations, fostering policies that elevate Israeli interests above Palestinian rights and the broader stability of the Middle East. Christian Zionists often lobby against the creation of a Palestinian state and advocate for the expansion of Israeli settlements—policies that align with their apocalyptic eschatology. These positions are propped up by narratives that depict Muslims as perpetual adversaries, painting them as wolves in sheep’s clothing—untrustworthy and inherently hostile. Such rhetoric further marginalizes Palestinian voices, exacerbates tensions, and erodes the potential for constructive dialogue. By casting the conflict in rigid religious terms, Christian Zionism effectively throws sand into the gears of peace efforts, grinding negotiations to a halt.
Moreover, the clash-of-civilizations narrative promoted by Christian Zionism casts long shadows across the globe, shaping perceptions of Islam and Muslims well beyond the Middle East. This narrative reduces Islam to a monolithic force, akin to a storm cloud looming on the horizon, poised to unleash destruction. Such portrayals stigmatize Muslim communities worldwide and justify discriminatory policies and social attitudes. They also align with centuries-old patterns of viewing Islam as the “other”—a spectre haunting the Western imagination. This perspective perpetuates a cycle of mistrust and conflict, like a wheel turning endlessly on the same worn-out path.
In this way, Christian Zionism’s political influence transcends its immediate theological and geopolitical concerns, shaping global narratives about religion, identity, and power. Its ripple effects, much like a stone cast into a pond, extend outward—stirring the waters of fear and division far beyond the shores of the Middle East.
The Impact on Muslim Communities
The Islamophobic rhetoric of Christian Zionism casts a long and dark shadow over Muslim communities, both in the West and globally. By consistently portraying Islam as a violent and expansionist religion, Christian Zionism fuels the marginalization and discrimination of Muslims in Western societies. This narrative reinforces deep-seated stereotypes that paint Muslims as ticking time bombs or square pegs that can’t fit into the round hole of Western values, leading to social exclusion and prejudice. This widespread bias is a testament to the potency of Christian Zionist rhetoric in shaping perceptions of Islam and Muslims.
Christian Zionism’s portrayal of Muslims as existential threats to Israel and Western civilization has also laid the groundwork for anti-Muslim policies and practices. In the United States and Europe, this rhetoric has been used to fan the flames of fear, justifying policies that treat Muslim communities like suspects under constant watch. For example, the post-9/11 era saw a surge in measures such as the USA Patriot Act, which disproportionately affected Muslim individuals and organizations. Christian Zionism’s framing of Islam as a global menace has provided ideological support for such draconian measures, legitimizing the view that Muslims must be monitored and controlled to safeguard national security.
Beyond policy, Christian Zionism’s rhetoric has sown seeds of discord between Muslim and Jewish communities. By framing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as a religious struggle between Judaism and Islam, Christian Zionism reduces a complex historical and political issue to a simplistic tug-of-war between two irreconcilable faiths. This narrative pits Muslims and Jews against each other, making it harder to foster dialogue and cooperation. In the U.S. and elsewhere, this dynamic has strained interfaith relationships, creating walls where bridges should be built and complicating efforts by Muslim and Jewish leaders to collaborate on shared concerns, such as combating hate crimes or promoting social justice.
Christian Zionism’s rhetoric also drives a wedge between Muslims and Christians, undermining interfaith dialogue. By casting Islam as a religion of violence and portraying Muslims as enemies of Christianity, Christian Zionism fosters mistrust and hostility between the two communities. This narrative erases the vibrant tapestry of coexistence and collaboration that has existed between Muslims and Christians, particularly in regions like the Middle East, where Christian communities have lived alongside Muslims for centuries. The marginalization of Palestinian Christians within Christian Zionist discourse further highlights this divide, as their voices are often silenced in favour of a narrative that prioritizes unwavering support for Israel over solidarity with fellow Christians.
Ultimately, the Islamophobic rhetoric of Christian Zionism has ripple effects far beyond the pulpit, shaping public attitudes, influencing policies, and straining interfaith relationships. By perpetuating stereotypes and promoting a rigid “us versus them” worldview, Christian Zionism contributes to a climate of fear and hostility that disproportionately affects Muslim communities. This dynamic not only harms Muslims but also undermines efforts to build inclusive, pluralistic societies where diverse religious and cultural groups can coexist peacefully. Addressing the impact of Christian Zionism requires breaking the chains of its narratives and opening doors to more nuanced conversations about Islam—ones that recognize its diversity and reject the demonization of an entire faith community.
Resurrecting the Crusades: Christian Zionism’s Clash with Islam
Karen Armstrong is not alone in tracing within Western Christian Zionism evidence of the ghosts of the Crusades. She argues that such fundamentalists have “returned to a classical and extreme religious crusading.” (Armstrong, p. 377) Christian Zionism’s portrayal of Islam as an existential threat to Israel and Western civilization has stoked the flames of Islamophobia through its theological, political, and eschatological frameworks. By casting Muslims as adversaries in a cosmic chess match between good and evil, the movement promotes harmful stereotypes and justifies policies that contribute to the marginalization of Muslim communities. Its theological foundation, rooted in dispensationalism, frames Islam as a sword-wielding expansionist force, while its political advocacy positions Israel as a bulwark against Islamic extremism. This dual approach distorts the complexities of Middle Eastern realities and draws rigid battle lines that reinforce racial and cultural hierarchies, leading to discriminatory practices such as surveillance, profiling, and exclusionary immigration policies.
The narrative of a clash of civilizations acts as a sledgehammer, further entrenching anti-Muslim sentiment by framing global conflicts as a battle between the Judeo-Christian West and the Islamic world. This binary worldview reduces intricate geopolitical realities to a black-and-white war painting, erasing the diversity within Islam and overlooking the shared histories of coexistence between Muslims, Christians, and Jews. It also marginalizes voices within Christianity—especially those of Palestinian Christians—whose perspectives are often excluded in favour of a narrative that prioritizes unconditional support for Israel. Christian Zionism’s rhetoric cements a racialized logic that equates Christianity with whiteness and modernity while portraying Islam as backward and barbaric.
Addressing the Islamophobic tendencies of Christian Zionism requires peeling back the layers of its theological interpretations, historical legacies, and political actions to reveal the root causes of its divisive narratives. Promoting a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of religion and politics is essential to dismantling the walls of fear and suspicion that have perpetuated conflict. Scholars, religious leaders, and policymakers must join hands across divides to counter the stereotypes perpetuated by Christian Zionism and foster dialogue that highlights shared values and common humanity. Amplifying the voices of marginalized groups, such as Palestinian Christians and Muslims, is crucial to creating a richer, more balanced symphony in conversations about the Middle East.
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Ultimately, building a more just and peaceful world demands moving beyond the binary oppositions and apocalyptic frameworks that Christian Zionism promotes. Fostering mutual understanding and cooperation between religious communities can help douse the fires of division and pave the way for solidarity and respect. Confronting the impact of Christian Zionism is not just a theological or political necessity—it is a moral imperative, as its rhetoric and policies have real-world consequences for millions. Only through intentional efforts to uplift diversity, dignity, and equality can we work toward a future defined by justice and peace for all.
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(V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar specializing in Islamic humanism. With a deep commitment to advancing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress, his work aims to foster a just society, encourage critical thinking, and promote inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. He is dedicated to creating pathways for meaningful social change and intellectual growth through his scholarship. He can be reached at [email protected])
